This document provides an introduction to pathology and the causes of diseases. It defines pathology as the study of diseases, including their causes, processes, and effects. It describes diseases as physiological dysfunctions that can be caused by structural abnormalities or less defined issues. Diseases are classified based on epidemiology, etiology, pathogenesis, morphological changes, and clinical significance. The roles of pathology involve understanding disease mechanisms and providing diagnoses through laboratory tests, histological examination, staining techniques, and other specialized analyses. Pathologists analyze samples and test results to identify diseases and abnormalities in tissues.
At the end of the class the students will be able to,
Explain the basic concept of pathology
Describe the Cellular & tissue changes.
Describe the Infiltration and regeneration
Elaborate the inflammation and infection
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At the end of the class the students will be able to,
Explain the basic concept of pathology
Describe the Cellular & tissue changes.
Describe the Infiltration and regeneration
Elaborate the inflammation and infection
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introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia introduction to anesthesia in
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
2. WHAT IS PATHOLOGY
• Pathology is a study of diseases.
• The study provides understanding of the processes
(their causes, clinical effects etc).
3. • is the condition of complete physical, psychic and social well-doing,
but not only diseases or the physical defects absence (WHCO – World
Health Care Organization).
• In doctor’s practical activity determination is used, according to which
health is the condition of a norm. There is a question: what is the
norm?
• There are two approaches to this notion determination: the statistic
and the general physiologic one.
• According to the first one, the norm is the condition,which is the most
most frequently observed among people.
• According to the second one, the norm is the biological optimum of
the organism functioning and development. The second
determination reflects the scientific approach to the notion which is “a
“a norm”. However this approach remains still unrealized because of
our knowledge and possibilities limitation
4. • is disturbance of human
organism vital activity under the
influence of extraordinary
factors of external or inner
environment which is
characterized by lowering of
capacity for work and
adaptation with simultaneous
mobilization of protective forces.
5. • The new quality is created in the disease because of
quantitative changes into qualitative transition.
• As a rule, there are two contrary processes, two
phenomenas of disease.
• One of them is damage, and the other is called as a
protective response of organism (which makes the first one
perform the physiological measures against the disease,
• The second one – pathological proper or the damage). The
two beginnings of disease exist simultaneously. For example,
in case of abscess we see the limited necrotic tissue area,
but we can also see here the leucocytes emigration,
phagocytosis which protect the organism. The treatment is
always directed to damage limitation or removal, that
means – to protective reactions stimulation.
6. PATHOLOGY
• -as a science-
• focuses on mechanisms by which cells and tissues are
injured, on structural and functional consequences of
injurious stimuli on cells, tissues, and organs, finally on
the entire organism
• - it is a morphologic discipline- describes
pathological morphologic findings in tissues and cells
7. PATHOLOGY
• -as a medical discipline-
• deals with a performance and an
interpretation of laboratory procedures,
leading to diagnosis
• -these include many diagnostic and
investigative techniques and concern with
interpretation of laboratory procedures-
examples: histologic examination of
surgical biopsies, cytological examination
of smears and FNA (fine needle aspirates),
bone marrow smears, etc.
8. PATHOLOGY
• Two main fields of pathology as medical
discipline:
• (1) surgical pathology -deals with
interpretation of histological examination
of tissues and organs removed in surgery
from living patients
• (2) autopsy pathology -is concerned
with examination of gross, macroscopic
and histological changes in diseases
studied in dead persons
9. PATHOLOGY
• Forensic pathology - is performed and practised
separately from pathology- in faculty hospitals, both
disciplines are closely related in small and district
hospitals
• - main task is to determine whether death was due to
natural or unnatural causes, such as caused by accident,
other person, murders etc.
• -in large medical centers and faculty hospitals-
pathologists usually subspecialize in a distinctive
discipline, i.e. cytology, hematopathology, surgical
10. PATHOLOGY
• surgical pathology report-diagnosis based on
microscopic and gross examination of surgicals
• autopsy report-diagnosis of disease and cause of
death, describes morphologic changes, studies
pathogenetic consequencies
11. PATHOLOGY
• The study of pathology is divided into:
• general pathology- concerns with basic
reactions of cells and tissues to abnormal
stimuli that are common for a group of
diseases or that underlie all diseases or
groups of diseases
• special pathology- examines specific
responses of specialized tissues and organs
to pathologic stimuli
• oncologic pathology- deals with
neoplastic processes (tumours)
12. DEFINITIONS OF BASIC ASPECTS OF
DISEASE PROCESS
• Pathology
• medical discipline which provides the link
between basic biological sciences and the
practice of medicine. Pathology is a logical,
scientific basis of medicine
• is the study of changes which occur in cells
and tissues as a result of either genetic
inborn or environmental damage, is a study
of diseases
• the study provides understanding of the
processes (their causes, clinical effects etc)..
13. PATHOLOGY
• -in broader terms, pathology means also study of the
diseases, their causes, prevention and classification
14. DISEASE
• Disease- is defined as a physiological or psychological
dysfunction.
• -it can be caused by obvious structural
abnormalities, or may be less well defined-without
obvious morphological damage, such as in anorhexia
nervosa- mental anorhexia
15. DISEASES
• All diseases have certain aspects which can form the
basis for classification- these include
• -pathology focuses on the following different
aspects of disease
• -epidemiology (occurrence and incidence of d.)
• -etiology (causes of disease)
• -pathogenesis (mechanisms of disease)
• -morphology of the tissue changes
• - clinical significance and consequencies
16. DISEASE
• 1.epidemiology-provides a wider context for the
study, classification, and diagnosis of diseases
• -epidemiological data are important
• -for providing informations about causes of
diseases.
• -for identifying risk factors
• -for providing adequate health care, and planning
disease prevention, epidemiology records data
about
.incidence-number of new cases occurring in a
defined population over a defined time period
17. DISEASE
prevalence-number of cases found in a defined
population at a stated time
morbidity-number of diseased persons in a given
locality, nation etc. and mortality-number of deaths to
the population
18. DISEASE
• 2.etiology studies causes of disease
• diseases result from the interaction between individuals and their
environment
• -the other diseases result from an environmental factors acting in
conjunction with a genetic predisposition
• -in some instances the underlying cause of a disease is obscure-
idiopathic, spontaneous, essential
19. CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES
• classification of diseases - based on the etiologic
factors, diseases can be classified to two categories
• -congenital- present at birth, even though they are
sometimes recognized later
• -acquired- occur only later after births (infectious,
nutritional, chemical, physical, radiation injury etc.)
20. DISEASE
• 3.pathogenesis- etiopathogenesis
• -refers to the sequence of events in the response of
the cells, tissues, organs to the injurious stimuli that
may lead to a disease
• -describes mechanisms of development of disease
• -study of pathogenesis remains a main domain of the
scientific pathology
21. DISEASE
• 4.morphological changes
• -structural alterations induced in cells and tissues
• -refers to the structural alterations of cells or tissues
that are either characteristic or diagnostic of a disease
• -there are gross/ macroscopic findings and
histological microscopic findings
22. DISEASE
• 5.clinical significance
• -functional consequencies of morphologic changes, as observed clinically
• -morphologic structural changes of cells, tissues and organs are related
to functional disorders, morphologically altered tissues do not provide
normal functions, and these consequent pathologic functions are studied
in details in many clinical disciplines- pathology provides basic
information with respect to clinical outcome, prognosis, etc.
23. DISEASE
• -symptoms- features of illness that are noticed by
patients
• -signs- clinical manifestation of the disease which
are recognized by clinicians
24. Type Basis Examples
Congenital Genetic Hemophilia A
(absence of clotting factor
VIII)
Non-genetic Intrauterine rubeolla infection
(measles) leads to
deafness/blindness in the
fetus
Acquired Inflammatory Dermatitis (eczema,
inflammation of the skin)
Vascular Atherosclerosis
Growth and proliferation
disorders
Tumors
Metobolic Gout (deposition of uric acid
crystals in joints and soft
tissues
Degenerative Alzheimer disease-demensia
Infective / Drug induced tbc / Renal failure
25. THE ROLE OF PATHOLOGY IN DIAGNOSTIC
PROCESS: FROM CLINICAL REASONING TO
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY.
• patients present with symptoms and
clinical examination reveals signs which
suggest a diagnosis
• -examination of various specimens in
pathology laboratories helps to establish
and confirm diagnosis, and monitor the
treatment
• Diagnosis is the act of identifying a
disease in an individual patient and is
based on clinical history, physical
examination and pathology investigation
26. DIAGNOSIS
• Diagnosis involves skills and laboratory tests
• Special pathology techniques are used
• Special stains, immunohistochemistry and
molecular biology techniques are routinely used
27. THE ROLE OF PATHOLOGIST:
• Looking at samples of tissues (biopsies)
• Using the range of special laboratory
techniques
• Histology
• Autopsy
• Special stains
• Immunohistochemistry
• Electron microscopy
• Molecular biology techniques
28. METHODS IN PATHOLOGY
Diagnostic and investigative techniques used in
pathology
• routine histological techniques –fundamental for
histopathologic diagnosis – these techniques use
different coloration of cells and tissues and cell
components using different staining methods
29. MOST COMMONLY USED
STAINING METHODS-
• hematoxylin and eosin stain- combination of
haematoxylin and eosin remains the gold standard,
method used for majority of histopathologic
diagnoses- method is now over 100 years old
• haematoxylin- is natural product of blue colour, is
used mostly for staining the nuclei- shows general
morphology of a tissue
• -eosin- the most frequently used partner stain
because it is easy to stain, and its red colour
contrasts well with blue colour of haematoxylin-
30. • special stains- HE is important as a general staining
procedure but it is sometimes necessary to use other
staining procedures in order to demonstrate more
selectively the particular tissue components
• -connective tissue components, such as collagens,
muscle fibers can be demonstrated by Van Gieson
stain or trichrome stains
• reticulin (type III collagen) can be shown by silver
impregnation technique
31. • -basement membrane components (such as type IV
collagen, laminin) are well demonstrated with the
periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) method, silver
according to Gomory, etc.
32. RECOMMENDED READING
MATERIAL
• 1. Cotran RS, Kumar V and Collins T. Robbin: Pathologic basis of
Diseases, WB Saunders, Philadelphia.
• 2. Klatt EC and KumarV: Robbins Review of Pathology. W. B.
Saunders, Missouri.
• 3. Harsh Mohan: Textbook of Pathology