The document provides information on the fundamentals of digital computers. It defines a computer as a device that performs calculations at high speeds using binary code. The key components of a computer are described as the input unit, central processing unit (CPU), arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, memory unit, and output unit. Various storage devices used in computers are also explained, including hard disks, floppy disks, optical discs, tape, mobile storage media, smart cards, and Blu-ray discs. The roles of the system clock, word length, and bus width are outlined.
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, provide information (output), and store the information for future use
This file contains complete information about computer Architecture.
1. What is a computer.
2. Types of computers
3. Block Diagram of Computer.
4 . Processor, Memory
5. Computer Generati
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, provide information (output), and store the information for future use
This file contains complete information about computer Architecture.
1. What is a computer.
2. Types of computers
3. Block Diagram of Computer.
4 . Processor, Memory
5. Computer Generati
Computer Architecture and Organization.pptxLearnersCoach
Computer architecture is the definition of basic attributes of hardware components and their interconnections, in order to achieve certain specified goals in terms of functions and performance. Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture/
Computer organization: the design and physical arrangement of various hardware units to work in tandem, in a orderly manner, in order to achieve the goals specified in the architecture.
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture-part2/
This presentation is a part of the COP2271C college level course taught at the Florida Polytechnic University located in Lakeland Florida. The purpose of this course is to introduce Freshmen students to both the process of software development and to the Python language.
The course is one semester in length and meets for 2 hours twice a week. The Instructor is Dr. Jim Anderson.
A video of Dr. Anderson using these slides is available on YouTube at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ar8cV0ynWAw
An Overview of the Computer System
What is a Computer?
Hardware
Software
Data
Users
A computer is an electronic device used to process data.
A computer can convert data into information that is useful to people.
A complete computer system includes four distinct parts:
A computer's hardware consists of electronic devices; the parts you can see and touch.
The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware used by the computer, such as a keyboard, monitor, modem, mouse, etc.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Computer Architecture and Organization.pptxLearnersCoach
Computer architecture is the definition of basic attributes of hardware components and their interconnections, in order to achieve certain specified goals in terms of functions and performance. Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture/
Computer organization: the design and physical arrangement of various hardware units to work in tandem, in a orderly manner, in order to achieve the goals specified in the architecture.
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture-part2/
This presentation is a part of the COP2271C college level course taught at the Florida Polytechnic University located in Lakeland Florida. The purpose of this course is to introduce Freshmen students to both the process of software development and to the Python language.
The course is one semester in length and meets for 2 hours twice a week. The Instructor is Dr. Jim Anderson.
A video of Dr. Anderson using these slides is available on YouTube at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=ar8cV0ynWAw
An Overview of the Computer System
What is a Computer?
Hardware
Software
Data
Users
A computer is an electronic device used to process data.
A computer can convert data into information that is useful to people.
A complete computer system includes four distinct parts:
A computer's hardware consists of electronic devices; the parts you can see and touch.
The term "device" refers to any piece of hardware used by the computer, such as a keyboard, monitor, modem, mouse, etc.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
5. How do we define
• Computer comes from the word compute
• Compute means calculations including simple
mathematics, complex algebra, logical analysis, etc. ...
• It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and
symbols, that are expressed in binary code—i.e., using
only the two digits 0 and 1.
• So we usually say computer is a computing device
which performs calculations at enormous speed
• It is a device which operates on “Data” or
“Information” for e.g. we can say calculations
,transactions, results, marks sheet , biodata etc
6. What exactly I can do
I can input DATA
I can PROCESS DATA
I can STORE DATA
I can RETRIEVE DATA
AS A WHOLE I CAN BE TERMED AS DATA PROCESSOR
7.
8. •A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy
compared to humans while performing mathematical
calculations.
•Computers can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions
per second.
•The time taken by computers for their operations is
microseconds and nanoseconds.
Speed….
9. Accuracy…..
• Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy.
• The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design
of computer.
• The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.
10. Consistent/ Diligence…
• A computer is free from tiredness, lack of
concentration, fatigue, etc.
• It can work for hours without creating any
error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every
calculation with the same accuracy.
• Due to this capability it overpowers human
being in routine type of work.
11. Storage capacity……
• The Computer has an in-built memory where
it can store a large amount of data.
• You can also store data in secondary storage
devices such as floppies, which can be kept
outside your computer and can be carried to
other computers.
12. Flexibility….
• The term flexibility is commonly defined as the
ability to adapt to changes
• "flexible" may refer to hardware, software, or a
combination of the two. It describes a device or
program that can be used for multiple purposes,
rather than a single
• An example of a flexible hardware device is a
hybrid tablet that also functions as a laptop. The
Microsoft Surface, for instance, is more flexible
than typical tablet, since it can also be used as a
Windows laptop.
13. HARDWARE
• Hardware refers to the external and internal
devices and equipment that enable you to
perform major functions such as input,
output, storage, communication, processing,
and more. There are two types of computer
hardware: external and internal.
14. SOFTWARE
• Software is a set of instructions, data or programs
used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which
describes the physical aspects of a computer.
15. FIRMWARE
• Firmware, as the name suggests, is simply a
type of software program on a hardware
device that provides a control for specific
hardware and provide essential instructions
on how the device communicates with various
other computer hardware. .
16. High level & Low level Language
• Both High level language and low level language are
the programming languages’s types. The main difference
between high level language and low level language is that,
Programmers can easily understand or interpret or compile the
high level language in comparison of machine. On the other
hand, Machine can easily understand the low level language in
comparison of human beings. Examples of high level
languages are C, C++, Java, Python, etc. Let’s see the
difference between high level and low level languages:
19. WHAT IS system clock and system
clock speed?
• The clock speed measures the number of
cycles your CPU executes per second,
measured in GHz (gigahertz). A “cycle” is
technically a pulse synchronized by an
internal oscillator, but for our purposes,
they're a basic unit that helps understand a
CPU's speed.
20. System Clock, clock speed, Word Length & Bus Width
System Clock
A quartz controlled oscillator that supplies a timing
signal at a fixed rate. It could be likened to someone
clicking their fingers, everything happens at this rate.
Every computer has its
own systems clock.
A system clock or system
timer is a continuous
pulse that helps the
computer clock keep the
correct time. It keeps count
of the number of seconds
elapsed since the epoch,
and uses that data to
calculate the current date
and time
21. System Clock, clock speed, Word Length & Bus Width
System Clock
The data and instructions are fetched, decoded and executed in time with the
system clock.
Instructions and data are processed in time to the system clock.
Instruction Data Data Instruction Data
1 Hz 2 Hz 3 Hz 4 Hz 5 Hz
A typical clock speed or
clock frequency:
(2400,000,000 cycles per second)
Clock speed of
the processor
22. System Clock, clock speed, Word Length & Bus Width
System Clock
Instructions and data are processed in time to the system clock.
Instruction Data Data Instruction Data
1 Hz 2 Hz 3 Hz 4 Hz 5 Hz
(2400,000,000
cycles per
second)
Processor
Internal Bus
Memory
When transferring
data or instructions
between the
processor and main
memory, sometimes
the internal bus
speed slows a
computer down.
23. System Clock, clock speed, Word Length & Bus Width
Word Length
Data is transferred in binary words. These represent the data and
instructions in a computer system.
(x8 bit binary word)
Internal
Bus
Word Length
(x16 bit binary word)
(x24 bit binary word)
24. System Clock, clock speed, Word Length & Bus Width
Bus Width
Bus width refers to the number of signal wires or lines allocated to a
bus.
Direction of travel
The number of lines in a bus
What is the effect of bus width on binary word size?
25. System Clock, clock speed, Word Length & Bus Width
Bus Width The effect of bus width on
word size
No. Of
wires in
bus
No. Of bits in
a word on
the bus
No. Of
different
binary
words
No. Of different
binary words as
a power of 2
Example of a
binary word
on the bus
The largest
word
counting in
denary
1 1 2 21 1 1
2 2 4 22 10 3
3 3 8 23 101 7
4 4 16 24 1100 15
8 8 256 28 11110001 255
16 16 65,536 216 1101101111110
000
65,353
20 20 1,048,576 220 ... 1,048,575
24 24 16,777,216 224 ... 16,777,215
27. Componentsunits
• Input unit
• Central Processing unit
• Arithmetic and logic unit
• Control unit
• Memory unit
• Output unit
28. Input unit
This is the process of entering data and programs in
to the computer system.
You should know that computer is an electronic
machine like any other machine which takes as inputs
raw data and performs some processing giving out
processed data.
Therefore, the input unit takes data from us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing.
29. CPU …
• The task of performing operations like arithmetic and
logical operations is called processing. The Central
Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the
storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the
instructions given and the type of data provided. It is then
sent back to the storage unit.
30. Arithmetic and logic unit
• After you enter data through the input device it is stored
in the primary storage unit.
• The actual processing of the data and instruction are
performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit.
• The major operations performed by the ALU are
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison.
• Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when
required. After processing the output is returned back to
storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
31. Control Unit
• The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the
supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion.
• Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various operations using time
signal.
• The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and
instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the
main memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for
other units of the computer to execute them.
• It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the
computer simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of
computer’s peripheral equipment as they perform the input and output.
32. Memory Unit…
memory in a computer is analogous to a notebook where we may note
down various things for future reference.
The memory can be classified into the following categories
• Primary memory
• Auxiliary or secondary memory
(i) Primary memory: main memory is the fastest memory
in a digital computer system. This memory is primarily used to store
the data and program temporarily during the execution of a program
(ii) Auxiliary or Secondary memory: secondary memory or
auxiliary memory is used to store the operating system, compiler,
assembler, application programs, data file etc. those are not read by
CPU directly.
33. Output unit…
The job of an output unit is just reverse of an input unit, it supplies the
information obtained from processed data to the outside world.
The following functions are performed by an output unit:
1) Accept the result produced by the computer and gives to the outside world;
2) It converts this codes result to human readable form.
3) It supplies the converted result to outside world.
35. Storage Devices
• A storage device is used to
store instructions, data, and
information when they are
not being used in memory
– Magnetic disks use magnetic
particles to store items on a
disk’s surface
35
36. Storage Devices- hard disk
• A hard disk is a
storage device that
contains one or
more inflexible,
circular platters that
magnetically store
data, instructions,
and information
36
38. Storage Devices- optical disc
• An optical disc is a
portable storage
medium that consists
of a flat, round,
portable disc made of
metal, plastic, and
lacquer that is written
and read by a laser
38
39. Storage Devices- Tape
• Tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic
housed in a tape cartridge
– Tape drive
39
40. Storage Devices- mobile storage media
• Miniature mobile storage media are
rewriteable media usually in the form of a
flash memory card, USB flash drive, or a smart
card
40
41. Storage Devices- smart card
• A smart card stores data n a thin
microprocessor embedded in the card
41
42. Blue ray disk
• Blu-ray is an optical disc format like CD and DVD.
Blu-ray discs can hold more information than other
optical media, because of the blue lasers that the disc
drives use. A single Blu-ray disc can hold up to 25GB
of data.
• It most often used for playback of high-definition
(HD) video.