The document summarizes and compares the digestive systems of reptiles, birds, and mammals. Reptiles have teeth on multiple jaw bones and a muscular tongue. Birds lack teeth and have a two-part stomach. Mammals have different types of teeth and specialized salivary glands. While differences exist, the basic components and functions of the digestive tract are similar across these groups, from mouth to anus.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
looking after the eggs or young until they are independent to defend from predators is known as parental care.
Amphibians show great diversity in Parental care.
The vertebrate brain
The vertebrate brain is the main part of the central nervous system. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system,
In most of the vertebrates the brain is at the front, in the head. It is protected by the skull and close to the main sense organs.
Brains are extremely complex and the part of human and animal body. The brain controls the other organs of the body, either by activating muscles or by causing secretion of chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Muscular action allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment.
The brain of an adult human weights about 1300–1400 grams .
In vertebrates, the spinal cord by itself can cause reflex responses as well as simple movement such as swimming or walking. However, sophisticated control of behaviour requires a centralized brain.
The structure of all vertebrate brains is basically the same.
At the same time, during the course of evolution, the vertebrate brain has undergone changes, and become more effective.
In so-called 'lower' animals, most or all of the brain structure is inherited, and therefore their behaviour is mostly instinctive.
In mammals, and especially in man, the brain is developed further during life by learning. This has the benefit of helping them fit better into their environment. The capacity to learn is seen best in the cerebral cortex.
Three principles
The brain and nervous system is essentially a system which makes connections. It has input from sense organs and output to muscles. It is connected in several ways with the endocrine system, which makes hormones, and the digestive system and sex system. Hormones work slowly, so those changes are gradual.
The brain is a kind of department store. It has, all inter-connected, departments which do different things. They all help each other gather senses.
Much of what the body does is not conscious. Basically, much of the body runs on automatic (breathing, heart beat, hungry, hair growth) adjusted by the autonomic nervous system. The brain, too, does much of its work without a person noticing it. The unconscious mind refers to the brain activities which are hardly ever noticed.
looking after the eggs or young until they are independent to defend from predators is known as parental care.
Amphibians show great diversity in Parental care.
ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms:
Non-chordata- including animals without notochord.
Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis.
Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) .
Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body.
It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates.
It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed.
Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils.
However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms.
Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable.
Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages.
Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.
Evolutionary change in heart of vertebrates
Heart is situated ventral to the oseophagus in the pericardial section of the coelom.
Heart is a highly muscular pumping organ that pumps blood into arteries and sucks it back through the veins.
In vertebrates it has undergone transformation by twisting from a straight tube to a complex multi-chambered organ.
. There has been an increase in the number of chambers in heart during evolution of vertebrates.
The heart is covered by a transparent protective covering, called pericardium. It is a single layer in fish.
Within pericardium there is a pericardial fluid, protects the heart from the external injury.
The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient oxygen transport.
INTRODUCTION
The jaw (Upper and lower) is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth.
It is typically used for grasping and manipulating food.
Jaw suspension means the fusion of upper jaw and lower jaw or skull for efficient biting.
There are different ways in which these attachments are attained depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.
In most vertebrates, the jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically.
The vertebrate jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth.
The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian.
It is believed that the hyoid system suspends the jaw from the brain case of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws.
The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency.
The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians.
Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.
Jaw Suspension or Suspensoria:
The method by which the upper and lower jaws are suspended or attached from the chondrocranium is known as jaw suspension or suspensorium.
Amongst the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) arch consists of
= a dorsal palato pterygoquadrate bar forming the upper jaw,
= and ventral Meckel’s cartilage forms the lower jaw.
The second (hyoid) arch consists of = a dorsal hyomandibular supporting and suspending the jaws with the cranium, and a ventral hyoid.
The remaining visceral arches support the gills and are, hence, called branchial arches. Thus, splanchnocranium forms the jaws and suspends them with the chondrocranium.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
It discusses basic information regarding a hemichordate animal called Balanoglossus or Acorn worm, which is also a good connecting link between the non-chordates and chordates.
ORIGIN OF CHORDATES
Animal kingdom is basically divided into two sub kingdoms:
Non-chordata- including animals without notochord.
Chordata- This comprising animals having notochord or chorda dorsalis.
Chordates were evolved sometime 500 million years ago during Cambrian period (invertebrates were also began to evolve in this period) .
Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body.
It is believed that Chordates have originated from invertebrates.
It is difficult to determine from which invertebrate group the chordates were developed.
Chordate ancestors were soft bodied animals. Hence they were not preserved as Fossils.
However, early fossils of chordates have all been recovered from marine sediments and even modern protochordates are all marine forms.
Also glomerular kidneys are also found in some marine forms such as myxinoids and sharks. That makes the marine origin of chordates more believable.
Chordates evolved from some deuterostome ancestor (echinoderms, hemichordates, pogonophorans etc.) as they have similarities in embryonic development, type of coelom and larval stages.
Many theories infers origin of chordates, hemichordates and echinoderms from a common ancestor.
Evolutionary change in heart of vertebrates
Heart is situated ventral to the oseophagus in the pericardial section of the coelom.
Heart is a highly muscular pumping organ that pumps blood into arteries and sucks it back through the veins.
In vertebrates it has undergone transformation by twisting from a straight tube to a complex multi-chambered organ.
. There has been an increase in the number of chambers in heart during evolution of vertebrates.
The heart is covered by a transparent protective covering, called pericardium. It is a single layer in fish.
Within pericardium there is a pericardial fluid, protects the heart from the external injury.
The evolution of the heart is based on the separation of oxygenated blood from deoxygenated blood for efficient oxygen transport.
INTRODUCTION
The jaw (Upper and lower) is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth.
It is typically used for grasping and manipulating food.
Jaw suspension means the fusion of upper jaw and lower jaw or skull for efficient biting.
There are different ways in which these attachments are attained depending upon the modifications in visceral arches in vertebrates.
In most vertebrates, the jaws are bony or cartilaginous and oppose vertically.
The vertebrate jaw is derived from the most anterior two pharyngeal arches supporting the gills, and usually bears numerous teeth.
The vertebrate jaw probably originally evolved in the Silurian period and appeared in the Placoderm fish which further diversified in the Devonian.
It is believed that the hyoid system suspends the jaw from the brain case of the skull, permitting great mobility of the jaws.
The original selective advantage offered by the jaw may not be related to feeding, but rather to increased respiration efficiency.
The jaws were used in the buccal pump (observable in modern fish and amphibians) that pumps water across the gills of fish or air into the lungs in the case of amphibians.
Over evolutionary time the more familiar use of jaws (to humans), in feeding, was selected for and became a very important function in vertebrates. Many teleost fish have substantially modified jaws for suction feeding and jaw protrusion, resulting in highly complex jaws with dozens of bones involved.
Jaw Suspension or Suspensoria:
The method by which the upper and lower jaws are suspended or attached from the chondrocranium is known as jaw suspension or suspensorium.
Amongst the visceral arches, the first (mandibular) arch consists of
= a dorsal palato pterygoquadrate bar forming the upper jaw,
= and ventral Meckel’s cartilage forms the lower jaw.
The second (hyoid) arch consists of = a dorsal hyomandibular supporting and suspending the jaws with the cranium, and a ventral hyoid.
The remaining visceral arches support the gills and are, hence, called branchial arches. Thus, splanchnocranium forms the jaws and suspends them with the chondrocranium.
The primitive blueprint for the heart and circulatory system emerged with the arrival of the third mesodermal germ layer in bilaterians. Since then, hearts in animals have evolved from a single layered tube to a multiple chambered heart in due course of time.
It discusses basic information regarding a hemichordate animal called Balanoglossus or Acorn worm, which is also a good connecting link between the non-chordates and chordates.
Crash-Course for AIPMT & Other Medical Exams 2016 (Essentials cockroach)APEX INSTITUTE
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We all at 'Apex' are taking this initiative to improve the quality of education along-with each student's development and growth.
Committed to excellence...
With best wishes.
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Embryonic Digestive Tract:
Archenteron:
The embryonic archenteron becomes the lining of the adult digestive tract and of all its derivatives.
Splanchnic mesoderm adds layers of connective tissue and smooth muscles around the archenteron.
Ectodermal invagination of the head forms the stomodaeum leading into oral cavity, and a similar mid-ventral ectodermal invagination forms proctodaeum, which leads into the hindgut.
The stomodaeum becomes the adult buccal cavity and gives rise to teeth enamel, epithelial covering of tongue, glands, e.g., mucous, poison and salivary, etc., and Rathke’s pouch of anterior pituitary gland.
The proctodaeum forms either a small terminal part of the cloaca in lower vertebrates and rectum in mammals.
Digestive Tract of Adult:
Following outgrowths arise from the digestive tract- oral glands, Rathke’s pouch, thyroid gland, gill-clefts, tympanic cavity, thymus and other glands of gill-clefts, trachea, lungs, swim bladder, liver, pancreas, yolk sac, and urinary bladder.
Histology: The wall of the alimentary canal is made of four concentric layers.
An outermost visceral peritoneum or serous coat is made of mesothelial cells and thin layer of connective tissue. It is lacking in the oesophagus.
(ii) Below this is a muscular layer formed of smooth muscle fibres arranged in outer longitudinal and inner circular muscle fibres. Between the two layers of muscles is a network of nerve cells and nerve fibres of the autonomic nervous system, known as myenteric plexus or plexus of Auerbach.
(iii) Beneath the muscle layer is a submucosa made of connective tissue having elastic fibres, fat, blood and lymph vessels, nerve cells and fibres glands.
(iv) The innermost layer is a mucosa composed of three regions:
(a) Outer-most narrow muscularis mucosa of outer longitudinal and inner circular smooth muscle fibres.
(b) Middle thin layer of lamina propria of connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves and nodules of lymphatic tissue, and
(c) A basement membrane supporting a layer of columnar epithelial cells which are often glandular and ciliated.
Insects, spiders, crabs, shrimp, millipedes, and centipedes are all arthropods. Arthropods have jointed feet, a segmented body, and an exoskeleton, a cuticle on the outside of their body. Arthropods have by far the greatest number of species of any animal group, at around 900,000 species
This presentation provide information about salient feature of cyclostomata with proper examples and explanation why they are classified in this class.
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In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
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It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
2. IN THIS
PRESENTATION, WE
WILL DISCUSS ABOUT
THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM OF
BIRDS
Eg:Pegion (Columba)
MAMMALS
Eg:Rabbit
(Oryctolagus)
REPTILES
Eg: Lizard (Calotes)
4. Reptiles are tetrapod (four-limbed vertebrate) animals in the class Reptilia, comprising today's
turtles, crocodilians, snakes, amphisbaenians, lizards, tuatara, and their extinct relatives. The
study of these traditional reptile orders, historically combined with that of modern amphibians,
is called herpetology.
Mouth & oral cavity- tetrapods such as reptiles, typically have longer oral cavities.
Teeth- reptiles still have teeth on the vomer, palatine, & pterygoid bones.
Tongue- primary tongue + glandular field (or tuberculum impar) + lateral lingual swellings
(more hypobranchial muscle).
Tongue mobility- sometimes long and may move in and out of the oral cavity.
Oral glands- some reptiles secrete poison. (E.g. Snake)
Pharynx- is the part of the foregut preceeding the esophagus & includes:
- glottis (slit leading into the larynx)
-openings of auditory (eustachian) tubes
- opening into esophagus
Stomach- increasing specialization (more differentiated from the esophagus)
Intestine- coiled small intestines & a relatively short large intestine (that empties into the
cloaca)
Cloaca- chamber at end of digestive tract that receives the intestine, & urinary & genital ducts,
ducts, & opens to the exterior via the vent
5. A.Digestive system of Calotes
B.A tooth
C.Showing structural relationship of liver and
pancreas with duodenum.
Digestive system of Snake
8. Birds has faster and more efficient digestive system than those of other
vertebrate groups.
Their beaks or bills replace the lips and mouth of mammals and vary in
shape.
Their tongue do helps manipulate food for swallowing.
Food passes through esophagus on its way to stomach.
Birds have a two part stomach,
granular portion known as Proventriculus and the muscular portions
known as Gizzard.
10. The mammalian digestive system consists of the alimentary canal
(complete digestive tract) and various accessory glands that secret
digestive juices into the canal through the ducts. The food is moved
along the tract by the contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of the
canal. These rhythmic contraction waves are called peristalsis. The
regulation of passage of material from one chamber to another within
the canal is controlled by ring-like valves called sphincters.
The accessory glands of the mammalian digestive tract are three pairs of
salivary glands, the pancreas, the liver, and its storage organ the gall
bladder.
11. Mouth: Foodstuffs are broken down mechanically by chewing and saliva is
added as a lubricant.
Pharynx - Out throat is the pharynx which leads to both the esophagus
and the windpipe ( trachea). When a human swallows the top of the
windpipe moves up so that its opening, the glottis, is blocked by a flap of
cartilage called the epiglottis. This helps to ensure that the bolus enters
the esophagus.
Esophagus: A simple conduit between the mouth and stomach -
important but only marginally interesting.
Stomach: Where the real action begins - chemical digestion of proteins
initiated and foodstuffs reduced to liquid form.
12. Liver: The center of metabolic activity in the body - its major role in the
digestive process is to provide bile salts to the small intestine, which are
critical for digestion and absorption of fats.
Pancreas: Important roles as both an endocrine and exocrine organ -
provides a potent mixture of digestive enzymes to the small intestine
which are critical for digestion of fats, carbohydrates and protein.
Small Intestine: The most exciting place to be in the entire digestive
system - this is where the final stages of chemical digestion occur and
where almost all nutrients are absorbed.
Large Intestine: Major differences among species in extent and
importance - in all animals water is absorbed, bacterial fermentation
takes place and feces are formed. In carnivores, that's about the extent
of it, but in herbivores like the horse, the large intestine is huge and of
critical importance for utilization of cellulose.
13. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF REPTILE-BIRD- MAMMAL-
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES-COMPARITIVE
Calotes (Lizard)
1. Mouth is a wide, slit present at
the anterior end of head.
2.Buccal cavity is a narrow gap.
Labial glands
are present on lips.They secrete
mucous.
3. On both jaws teet are present,
polyphyodont homodont teeth
arranged in a single row on each jaw.
Teeth are not useful for
mastication.Pleurodont dentition is
present.
4. Tongue is attached posteriorly to the
floor of buccal cavity and is free
anteriorly. Sensory papillae are present.
Columba (Pigeon)
1. Mouth is terminal, slitlike aperture
bounded by horny Jaws.
2. Buccal cavity is narrow and some
what and dorsoventrally flattened
3. Jaws are modified into tooth less
beak.
4. Tongue is narrow triangular and
fleshy. Its surface is covered with
horny material and bears thorn-like
projections which carry taste buds
and mucous glands.
Oryctoiagus (Rabbit)
1. Mouth is sub-terminal, cleft
bounded bv mobile, fleshy lips.
2. Buccal cavity is a spacious chamber
andits space between lips and the
teeth is called vestibule. This receives
the mouth opening.
3. dentition in mammals:Teeth are
diphyodont, heterodont and
thecodont. These are arranged in a
single row on each Jaw.Teeth are
modified cutting (Incissors) and
chewing (Premolars & molars)
canines are absent in rabbit.
4. Tongue is highly specialized, fleshy
and muscular and can be moved in
different directions. It can be
protruded out. Its surface is rugose
being covered with numerous
papillae along with taste buds.
14. 5. A pair of internal nostrils open into
the roof of the buccal cavity anteriorly.
Hard palate is present.
6. A bony palate is present covering the
roof of the buccal cavity.
7. Unicellular mucous glands are present
and keep the buccal cavity always wet.
8. Salivary glands are absent. But labial
glands are open at the lips which do not
play any role in digestion.
9. Pharynx is marked off. On the roof of
pharynx near the junction of two jaws a
pair of openings is called Eustachian
apertures. The floor of pharynx has the
glottis.
5. A bony palate is wanting in birds but a
pair of palatal folds and palatal groove
between the two folds are present.
Internal nostrils are located dorsal to the
palatal folds.
6. A bony palate is absent. But soft
palate is formed of two membranous
folds.
7. Unicellular mucous glands are absent
in the epithelium of bucco-pharyngeal
region.
8. Salivary glands which open into the
buccal cavity are lingual, mandibular,
maxillary, cricoary tenoid, palatinal and
sphenopalatinal glands.
9. Pharynx is marked off from the buccal
cavity but it receives, internal nostrils
through which nasal passages open into
its cavity, the gullet & glottis.
5. The nasal passages are separated from
the buccal cavity by a bony palate. The
internal nostrils open into the pharynx
nearer to glottis.
6. The palate is differentiated into
anterior bony hard palate and a soft
palate is formed of connective tissue.
The soft palate is produced behind into
a process – velum palati hanging down
from the roof, which prevents the entry
of food into nasal passage.
7. Uni cellular mucous glands are absent.
But multi cellular serous glands are
present.
8. The multi cellular salaivary glands are
four pairs. They are Infra orbital, parotid,
sublingual and sub-maxillary glands.
Palatine, tonsillar, superior & inferior
labial glands are also associated.
9.Pharynx is not sharply demarcated
from the buccal cavity. It receives the
openings of esophagus and the glottis.