A cohort study follows groups of individuals (cohorts) over time to determine factors associated with outcomes. This document describes cohort studies and other research designs including descriptive research, experimental research, case studies, cross-sectional studies, case-control studies, exploratory research, and their key features. Cohort studies are useful for investigating potential causes before outcomes occur. Other designs help describe characteristics, compare groups, generate hypotheses, or understand phenomena in their natural context. Each design has strengths and limitations for addressing different research questions.

1. Cohort
STUDY

2. COHORT STUDY
 A study design where one or more samples (called
cohorts) are followed prospectively and subsequent status
evaluation with respect to a disease or outcome are
conducted to determine which initial participants exposure
(risk factors) are associated with it as the study is
conducted , outcome from participants in each cohort is
measured and relationships with specific characteristics
determine.

3. COHORT STUDY
 May be simply descriptive
 A group of individuals who do not yet have the outcome of
interest are followed together over time to see who
develops the conditions
 Participants are interviewed or observed to determine the
presence or absence of certain exposures, risk or
characteristics.
 May identify risk by comparing the incidence of specific
outcomes in exposed and not exposed participants.

4. STRENGTHS:
Powerful strategy for defining incidence and
investigating potential causes of an outcome
before it occurs.
Time sequence strengthens inference that the
factor may cause the outcome.

5. WEAKNESS:
Expensive – many subjects must be
studied to observe outcome of interest.
Potential confounders – e.g. cigarette
smoking might confound the association
between exercise and CHD.

6. Descriptive
RESEARCH

7. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
 It is defined as a research method that
describes the characteristics of the population
or phenomenon that is being studied. This
methodology focuses more on the “what” of
the research subject rather than the “why” of
the research subject.

8. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
In other words, it primarily focuses on
describing the nature of a demographic
segment, without focusing on “why” a certain
phenomenon occurs. It describes the subject of
the research, without covering “why” it
happens.

9. Application of
Descriptive Research:
Define respondent
characteristics.
Measure data trends
Conduct comparisons
Validate existing
conditions
Conduct research at
different times.

10. Advantages of Descriptive Research:
 Data Collection
 Varied
 Natural Environment
 Quick to conduct and cheap
 Forms basis for decision-making

11. Disadvantages of Descriptive Research:
Confidentiality
Halo effect
Sample isn’t representative
No scope to learn

12. Experimental
RESEARCH

13. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 Is any research conducted with a specific
approach, where a set of variable are kept
constant while the other set of variables are
being measured as the subject of experiment.

14. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 The simplest example of an experimental
research is conducting a laboratory test. As
long as research is being conducted under
scientifically acceptable condition.

15. Types of Experimental
Research Design:
Pre-Experimental Research Design
True Experimental Research Design
Quasi-Experimental Research Design

16. Experimental Research
 It provides a basis for comparing two or more conditions.
 Controls or accounts for the effects of extraneous factors.
 Enables the research draw meaningful conclusions about
observed difference.
 Randomized controlled trials, single subject designs,
sequential, conical trials, evaluation research, quasi-
experimental research design, and meta-analysis.

17. Experimental Research
 Most rigid and scientific of all research methods.
 Provide conclusions beyond questions.
 Future oriented .
 Characterized by its strict adherence to the scientific
process.

18. QUALITATIVE STUDY
 Is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks in-
depth understanding of social phenomena within
their natural setting.
 It focuses on the “why” rather than the “what” of
social phenomena and relies on the direct
experiences of human beings as everyday lives.

19. The Three Major Focuses Areas are:
Individuals, societies, and cultures and
language, and communication.
Where does Qualitative Research come from?
Human beings have always attempted to
understand the world in which we live.

20. Experimental
FEATURES OF
RESEARCH

21. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 A method used by researchers through
manipulating one variable and control the rest
of the variables.
The process, treatment and program and this
type of research are also introduced and the
conclusion is observed.

22. FEATURES OF
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
“The best method indeed the only fully
compelling method of establish accusation is
to conduct a carefully designed experiment in
which the effects of the possible lurking
variables are controlled. To experiment mean
to actively change x and to observe the
response in y.”

23. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 After treatment, performance of subjects in both
groups is compared.
 Empirical observations based on experiments
provide the strongest argument for cause-effect
relationships.
 Extraneous variables are controlled by 3 & 4 and
other procedures if needed

24. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 Problem statement theory constructs
operational definitions variables
hypothesis.
 The investigator manipulates a variable directly (the
independent variable)

25. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The research question (hypothesis) is often
stated as the alternative hypothesis, that is used
to interpret differences in the empirical data.

26. Case Study
RESEARCH

27. Case Study
Often a description of an individual case’s condition or response to an
intervention.
 Can focus on a group, institution, family, etc.
 Data may be qualitative,
quantitative or both
 Case series: observation
of several similar cases
are reported

28. Case Study
Strengths
 Enables understanding of the totality of an
individuals (or organization, community)
experience
 The in-depth examination of a situation or
‘case’ can lead to discovery of
relationships that were not obvious before
 Useful for generating new hypothesis or
for describing new phenomena.

29. Case Study
Weaknesses
 No control group
 Prone to selection bias and confounding.
– The interaction of environmental and personal
characteristics make it weak in internal
validity
 Limited generalizability.

30. Case Examples
 Student who has
trouble learning to
read
 Agricultural
Education classroom
 Private School
 Life Knowledge
Curriculum project
 May also be:
– Event
• National FFA
Convention
– Activity
• Learning to use a
computer
– Ongoing Process
• Student Teaching

31. 3 Types of Case Studies
1. Intrinsic Case Study
2. Instrumental Case Study
3. Multiple or Collective Case Study

32. Intrinsic Case Study
 Researcher interested in understanding a specific
individual or situation
 Why?
 Goal = understand the case in all its parts
 Exploratory Research

33. Instrumental Case Study
 Researcher interested in understanding something more
than just a particular case
 Studies the case only as a means to some larger goal
 Goal = global
 Draws conclusions that apply beyond a particular case

34. Multiple or Collective Case Study
 Researcher studies multiple cases at the same time
 Overall study

35. Limitations
 One researcher
 Not all environments are identical
 Time
 Multiple or Collective
– valid generalizations
– require extensive research and time

36. Collection and Analysis
 The researcher is the observer and the analyzer
 Conclusion is generally used to develop a more intense
study

37. Cross Sectional
STUDY

38. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
Also known as “prevalence” study.
It is a type of observational study that
analyzes data from a population, or a
representative subset, at a specific point in
time.

39. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
Researchers studies a stratified group of
subjects at one point in time.
Draws conclusion by comparing the
characteristics of the stratified groups.

40. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
 Well-suited to describing variables and their
distribution patterns.
 Can be used for examining associations;
determination of which variables are predictors and
which are outcomes depends on the hypothesis.

41. CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
Examples:
Does lead paint ingestion cause hyper-
activity or does hyper-activity lead to lead
paint investigation?

42. Case Control
STUDY

43. WHAT IS A
CASE CONTROL STUDY?
A Case Control Study is designated to help
determine if an exposure is associated with an
outcome (disease or condition of interest).

44. WHAT IS A
CASE CONTROL STUDY?
In theory, the case control study can be
described simply.
First, identify the cases (a group known to
have the outcome) and the controls (a group
known to be free of the outcome).

45. Case Control Study
 A case control study is always retrospective because it
starts with an outcome then traces back to investigate
exposures. When the subjects are enrolled in their
respective groups, the outcome of each subject is already
known by the investigator.
 This, and not the fact that the investigator usually makes
use of previously collected data, is what makes case
control studies ‘retrospective’.

46. Strengths:
Useful for studying rare conditions
Short duration and relatively inexpensive
High yield of information from relatively few
participants
Useful for generating hypothesis

47. Weaknesses:
Increased susceptibility to bias:
Separate sampling of cases and controls
Retrospective measurement of predictor variables
No way to estimate the excess risk of exposure
Only one outcome can be studied

48. Exploratory
RESEARCH

50. WHAT IS
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH?
 Exploratory research is defined as a research used to
investigate a problem which is not clearly defined.
 It is conducted to have a better understanding of the
existing problem but will not provide conclusive results.
For such a researcher starts with a general idea and uses
this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be
focus for future research.

51. WHAT IS
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH?
 An important aspect here is that the researcher should be
willing to change his/her direction subject to revelation
of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried
out when the problem is at a preliminary stage.
 It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or
interpretive research as it used to answer questions like
WHAT, WHY, and HOW.

52. EXAMPLE:
 The owner of The Cupcake King has many, may
ideas for improving the bakery’s sales but isn’t sure
which will work. They think increasing the flavors
of cupcakes the bakery sells will bring in more
costumers but know they need more information.
They intend to conduct ER to investigate whether
expanding their cupcake selection will lead to an
increase in sales, or if there is better idea.

53. EXAMPLE:
 The owner of The Cupcake King has many, may ideas
for improving the bakery’s sales but isn’t sure which will
work. They think increasing the flavors of cupcakes the
bakery sells will bring in more costumers but know they
need more information. They intend to conduct ER to
investigate whether expanding their cupcake selection will
lead to an increase in sales, or if there is better idea.

54. EXAMPLE:
• The owner starts by examining prior research available on
food business improvement methods. They hope that this will
give them an idea on the types of questions and methods that
were helpful to others. Next, they develop a list of open-ended
questions, or questions that let respondents answer however
they want.
• The Cupcake King instance, ask the respondents how they
could improve the costumer experience. The most common
costumer response included comments regarding the location,
the atmosphere, the length of time it took to be served, and
wanting the ability to customize their cupcakes.

55. TYPES AND METHODOLOGIES OF
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 There are two ways in which research can be
conducted namely PRIMARY and
SECONDARY…under these two types there are
multiple methods which can used by a researcher.
The data gathered from these research can be
qualitative or quantitative.

56. PRIMARY RESEARCH METHODS
Information is gathered directly from the
subject. It can be through a group of people
or even an individual.
• Surveys/polls
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Observations

57. SECONDARY RESEARCH METHODS
Information is gathered from previously published
primary research. In such a research you gather
information from sources like case studies,
magazines, newspapers, books, and ect.
• Literature research
• Case study research

58. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH
 They are not structured studies.
 It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
 It will enable a researcher answer questions like
what is the problem? What is the purpose of the
study? And what topics could be studied?

59. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH
 The research need to have importance or value. If the
problem is not important in the industry the research
carried out is ineffective.
 To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no
prior research done or existing ones do not answer the
problem precisely enough.
 It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and
has risks associated with it.

60. ADVANTAGES OF
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can
adapt to changes as the research progresses.
It is usually low cost.
It helps lay the foundation of a research, which
can lead to further research.

61. ADVANTAGES OF
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 It enables the researcher understand at an early
stage, if the topic is worth investing the time and
resources and if it is worth pursuing.
 It can assist other researchers to find out possible
causes for the problem, which can be further studied
in detail to find out, which of them is the most likely
causes for the problem.

62. IMPORTANCE OF
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 Exploratory research is carried out when a topic
needs to be understood in depth, especially if it
hasn’t been done before. The goal of such a research
is to explore the problem and around it and not
actually derive a conclusion from it.

63. IMPORTANCE OF
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Such kind of research will enable a researcher
to set a strong foundation for exploring his
ideas, choosing the right research design and
finding variables that actually are important for
the analysis.

64. IMPORTANCE OF
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Most importantly, such a research can help
organizations or researchers save up a lot of
time and resources, as it will enable the
researcher to know if it worth pursuing.

65. Thank you!
CREDITS:
ANGELROSE ESLEYER
VINCENT ADRIAN MONTAÑEZ