Dictionaries are reference books that define words and phrases, including multiple meanings. They are made for different types of users like scholars, students, and second language learners. Dictionaries aim to both prescribe proper language usage as well as describe how words are actually used. Some of the earliest English dictionaries date back to the 16th century. Samuel Johnson's 1755 dictionary was hugely influential, as was Noah Webster's 1806 dictionary which introduced distinctively American words and spellings. The Oxford English Dictionary began in 1857 and took over 70 years to complete. Descriptive dictionaries document real usage while prescriptive dictionaries prescribe proper usage. Thesauruses contain synonyms and antonyms to help find alternative word choices.
Dictionary
A book that contains a list of words in alphabetical order and explains their meanings, or gives a word for them in another language or gives information about a particular subject.
Dictionaries have been developed and revival over time to meet the needs of learners of English as a second or foreign language.
Pronunciation and philippine dictionaries (philippine lexicography)Sheng Nuesca
Here is a file on Philippine pronunciation and its lexicography. Also included here are the tips on learning the correct Filipino pronunciation and the nuances of its lexicography.
The study of the origin and history of a word. It comes to us through Latin, with the Greek origin of (e´tymon “original form” + logia “study of”).
Etymology is, in a way, similar to archeology; since they both depend on existing evidence in order to explain a current form.
Each language has its complex history where the origin is broken down and changed through time. For instance, English went through Old, Middle and Modern eras reaching its contemporary form.
We need to study etymology to determine the true meaning of words and their functions in a sentence.
Etymology has no place in a general-purpose dictionary, and it should be left to historical or specialist dictionaries. Learners' dictionaries do not contain etymological information, though its exclusion from these dictionaries has been challenged (Ellegård 1978; Ilson 1983). Of the three Collins dictionaries.
There are two groups of users whose needs have been carefully considered and for whom dictionaries have been specifically tailored:
1) Children
2) Learners
Dictionary
A book that contains a list of words in alphabetical order and explains their meanings, or gives a word for them in another language or gives information about a particular subject.
Dictionaries have been developed and revival over time to meet the needs of learners of English as a second or foreign language.
Pronunciation and philippine dictionaries (philippine lexicography)Sheng Nuesca
Here is a file on Philippine pronunciation and its lexicography. Also included here are the tips on learning the correct Filipino pronunciation and the nuances of its lexicography.
The study of the origin and history of a word. It comes to us through Latin, with the Greek origin of (e´tymon “original form” + logia “study of”).
Etymology is, in a way, similar to archeology; since they both depend on existing evidence in order to explain a current form.
Each language has its complex history where the origin is broken down and changed through time. For instance, English went through Old, Middle and Modern eras reaching its contemporary form.
We need to study etymology to determine the true meaning of words and their functions in a sentence.
Etymology has no place in a general-purpose dictionary, and it should be left to historical or specialist dictionaries. Learners' dictionaries do not contain etymological information, though its exclusion from these dictionaries has been challenged (Ellegård 1978; Ilson 1983). Of the three Collins dictionaries.
There are two groups of users whose needs have been carefully considered and for whom dictionaries have been specifically tailored:
1) Children
2) Learners
Looks at School Library Month and other related celebrations (Naional Library Month and Library Workers Day) and discusses advocacy and advocacy plans.
Looks at different inquiry process models, including Kuhlthau's Information Search Process and Guided Inquiry derived from it, Big 6 Skills, plus a number of others.
What are School Libraries and School Librarians?Johan Koren
Looks at definitions and roles of the school library and the school librarian and follows the development of standards and guidelines for school libraries from 1845-2009. Considers also the radical new definition set out by R. David Lankes.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
2. 2
Dictionaries
What is a dictionary?
According to Wisegeek
―A dictionary is a reference book that
focuses on defining words and
phrases, including multiple meanings.
The most frequently used dictionary is
a language dictionary that includes
the majority of frequently used words
in a language. Language dictionaries
are made for different types of users:
scholars, office workers, schools, and
second language learners.‖
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-dictionary.htm
4. 4
Dictionaries
What’s a dictionary for?
English professor at Wits school of literature
and language studies, Victor Houliston, said:
―The underlying question is: ‗what is a
dictionary for?‘ Is it to prescribe how words
should be used, or is it merely a guide to the
way words are actually used?‖
• FYI, The Oxford Dictionary and sms slang are
now BFFs by Natalia Ribeiro March 31, 2011
5. 5
Dictionaries
Goes back to Jonathan Swift
In his ―Proposal for Correcting,
Improving, and Ascertaining the
English Tongue‖, Jonathan Swift
called for the creation of an
Academy similar to the Académie
Française, to watch over the Engliash language The
list of duties by the Academy include: to fix
the grammar, throw out words not useful in the
language, settle the good words there are, and
―restore‖ words that have been ―antiquicated‖
Swift and the English Language by ~suture, May 15, 2004, 11:58:41 PM
6. 6
Dictionaries
Fixing the language?
An aim of historical dictionaries
You might think that a word‘s definite meaning, or its
proper spelling, can be found in the dictionary. But these
pages are a reminder that dictionaries are complicated
things, and that words often have several meanings, and may
have had several spellings. The dictionaries show us that
language is always changing and that dictionary-makers
(lexicographers) are there to record the words of their time -
even though some of them hope to set down rules and fix the
language forever.
• Dictionaries and Meanings
9. 9
Dictionaries
The first real
lexicographer
Nathanael Bailey
Nathan Bailey was an English schoolmaster, philologist and
lexicographer. His Universal Etymological English Dictionary of
1721 went through some thirty editions; his 1730 Dictionarium
Britannicum was a massive folio dictionary that Samuel Johnson
used as a basis for his own dictionary. Bailey included
etymologies, rudimentary pronunciations, proverbs, and many
woodcut illustrations. Esoteric Latinisms were excluded, but
common words were defined. The Britannicum had about 48,000
entries, many more than any of its predecessors, and even more
than Johnson, at about 42,000.
http://www.one-eternal-day.com/2006/09/sdb-history-nathanael-bailey.html
10. 10
Dictionaries
Nathan[ael] Bailey’s main dictionary
1730 - Bailey's
Dictionarium
Britannicum
Sample entry
from Universal
Etymological
English
Dictionary from
Scanned
Images, Engravi
ngs and Pictures
From Old
Books
11. 11
Dictionaries
Bailey’s more famous
successor
Samuel Johnson:
―The chief intent of [the dictionary] is to
preserve the purity, and ascertain the
meaning of our English idiom . . .
[However,] it is not enough that a
dictionary delights the critick, unless,
at the same time, it instructs the learner; as it is to little purpose
that an engine amuses the philosopher by the subtilty of its
mechanism, if it requires so much knowledge in its application as
to be of no advantage to the common workman.‖
• The Plan of an English Dictionary (1747)
13. 13
Dictionaries
The American Answer to
Johnson
Noah Webster (1758-1843)
Webster began writing his dictionary at the
age of 43. It took him more than 27 years to
write it. In this first ―American‖ dictionary,
Webster introduced distinctively American words such as
―skunk‖ and ―hickory‖ and ―chowder.‖ In addition, he
introduced American spellings such as ―color‖ and ―music,‖
derivations of the English spellings ―colour‖ and ―musick.‖
But not all Webster spellings from that first dictionary stuck! For
example, ―tung‖ (tongue) and ―wimmen‖ (women) aren‘t used
today -- even if they are more true to their pronunciation.
• Happy Birthday, Noah Webster!
14. 14
Dictionaries
Webster’s dictionaries
1806 A Compendious Dictionary of the English
Language, the first truly American dictionary.
A Sample Glossary from A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language
1828 American Dictionary of the English Language
―. . . his magnum opus, An American Dictionary of the English
Language, for which he learned 26 languages, including Anglo-
Saxon and Sanskrit, in order to research the origins of his own
country‘s tongue. This book, published in 1828, embodied a new
standard of lexicography; it was a dictionary with 70,000 entries
that was felt by many to have surpassed Samuel Johnson‘s 1755
British masterpiece not only in scope but in authority as well.‖
• Noah Webster and America‘s First Dictionary
15. 15
Dictionaries
Post-Webster: Dictionary Wars and the
Merriam brothers
Webster vs. Worcester
Worcester vs. Webster came to mean not only linguistic conservatives and
moderates vs radicals and liberals, but, with some inevitable extremist
distortion and oversimplification, Anglophiles vs. Americanizers, Boston-
Cambridge-Harvard vs. New Haven-Yale, upperclass elegance vs. underbred
Yankee uncouthness.[8]
Merriam-Webster
The Merriam brothers desired a continuity of editorship that would link Noah
Webster's efforts with their own editions, so they selected Chauncey A.
Goodrich, Webster's son-in-law and literary heir, who had been trained in
lexicography by Webster himself, to be their editor in chief. Webster's son
William also served as an editor of that first Merriam-Webster dictionary,
which was published on September 24, 1847.
• Merriam-Webster Continues Noah Webster's Legacy
16. 16
Dictionaries
Unabridged—abridged
abridged (uh BRIJD)
1. Shortened; to decrease, condense,
digest: ―The book was abridged to a more readable length.‖
2. Restrict, limit, curtail, diminish, deprive one of, take away: ―No
one should be allowed to abridge citizens of their legal rights.‖
unabridged (un" uh BRIJD)
Entire, in full, not shortened, complete: ―There is an
unabridged dictionary on the library table; as well as an
unabridged book about etymologies.‖
• abridged, unabridged
17. 17
Dictionaries
The Webster name
Are all Webster‘s dictionaries alike?
No. After Noah Webster's death in 1843 and throughout the
19th century, Merriam-Webster produced the finest American
dictionaries, building the reputation of the name ―Webster‘s‖
to a point where it became a byword for quality dictionaries.
But in the late 1800s and early 1900s, legal difficulties
concerning the copyright and trademark of the name Webster
arose, and eventually many different publishers—some rather
unscrupulous—began putting dictionaries on the market
under the Webster‘s name.
• Merriam-Webster FAQ See also Webster's Dictionary on
18. 18
Dictionaries
Another famous dictionary
How it began 1857: The Philological Society of
London calls for a new English Dictionary
More work than they thought 1884: Five years into a
proposed ten-year project, the editors reach ant
One step at a time 1884-1928: The Dictionary is
published in fascicles
Keeping it current 1933-1986: Supplements to
the OED
Making it modern 1980s: The Supplements are
integrated with the OED to produce its Second
Edition
Into the electronic age 1992: The first CD-ROM
version of the OED is published
The future has begun The present: The OED is now
being fully revised, with new material published in
parts online
19. 19
Dictionaries
The OED and the Madman
Broadmoor‘s word-finder
Opened in 1863, Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, as it was
then known, has been home to some of England‘s most notorious
criminals. In 1872 it admitted one of its most famous patients
ever: Dr William Chester Minor, an American surgeon.
For around 20 years, Minor dedicated his life to collecting
quotations for the first Oxford English Dictionary. His work led
to a lasting friendship with one of the dictionary‘s editors, Dr
James Murray
More...
Further Reading: 'The Surgeon of
Crowthorne: A Tale of
Murder, Madness and the Love of
Words', by Simon Winchester
20. 20
Dictionaries
Two Kinds of Dictionaries
Descriptive and Prescriptive Dictionaries
Descriptive dictionaries describe the language. They include
words that are commonly used even if they are nonstandard.
They will often include nonstandard spellings.
Prescriptive dictionaries tend to be more concerned about
correct or standard English. They prescribe the proper usage
and spelling of words. That school dictionary in which I found
ain’t was a descriptive dictionary.
• English Plus+ News, November 2000
21. 21
Dictionaries
What’s a thesaurus?
What is a thesaurus?
A thesaurus is a collection of synonyms (words which have
basically the same meaning) and antonyms (words which have
basically opposite meanings).
What are the two forms of a thesaurus?
In dictionary form, words are in alphabetical order, so you
look ―very‖ up under V.
In index form, words are classified by meaning, and you would
have to look up ―very‖ in the index at the back of the book.
The index would guide you to the page or pages where ―very‖
appears.
• How to Use a Thesaurus
22. 22
Dictionaries
Roget’s?
Roget‘s Thesaurus
Roget's Thesaurus is a widely-used English thesaurus, created
by Dr. Peter Mark Roget (1779–1869) in 1805 and was released
to the public on 29 April, 1852. The original edition had 15,000
words, and each new edition has been larger. The Karpeles
Manuscript Library houses the original manuscript in its
collection.
The name ―Roget‖ is not trademarked. Use of the name
―Roget‖ in the title of a thesaurus does not necessarily indicate
any relationship to Dr. Roget or the original Roget’s
Thesaurus. It has come to be seen as a generic thesaurus name,
like ―Webster‖ for dictionaries.
23. 23
Dictionaries
Websites for dictionary skills
All About Words:
Dictionary Activities!
Dictionary Crossword Puzzle
Dictionary Word Search
Answer Keys for Crossword & Word
Search
Grade Level(s): 3-5, 6-8
By: Upsadaisy