This lab manual outlines experiments to be conducted in the course AE-4273 Radar Systems. The experiments are designed to help students learn key concepts in radar including signal generation and processing, radar equation, effects of interference, target detection probability, and dependence of target radar cross section on various parameters. The manual lists 14 experiments to be conducted over the course of the semester. The experiments will utilize MATLAB for simulations and involve tasks such as plotting radar range equation variables, analyzing signal to noise ratio against detection range, and understanding interference of signals with different phase angles.

1. Department of Avionics Engineering
The Superior University, Lahore
Lab Manual
RADAR SYSTEMS
AE-4273
Prepared by: Engr. Wajeeh Hassan
Reviewed by: Air Cdre. (R) Wajih Humayun

2. List Of Experiments
Lab No. Experiments Week
1 To learn how to create and use function files in MATLAB. 2
2
Compute the Doppler frequency and Doppler shift using the
difference between the transmitted and received signal
3
3
To become familiar with Computation of Radar Equation
using MATLAB.
4
4
Signal generation and effect of overlapping signals to
understand the concept of Noise affecting the system.
5
5
Analysis of Radar Signal to Noise Ratio against target
detection range for different values of target Radar cross
section.
6
6
Understanding the concept of Constructive and Destructive
interference of two signals using different phase angles.
7
7
To analyze the relation between received power (Pr) and RCS
for different values of range in the presence of noise.
8
8
Understand and compute the different values of Probability
of detection (Pd) and SNR for different values of Probability
of False Alarm (PFA).
9
9 Mid Term Viva 10
10
Understand and analyse the effect of aspect angle on Target
Radar Cross Section (RCS).
11
11
Understand and analyze the dependence of operating
frequency on Target Radar Cross Section (RCS).
12
12
Analyzing the affect of CFAR on target detection using Radar
Simulator in MATLAB.
13
13
Analyzing the affect of MTI on target detection using Radar
Simulator in MATLAB.
14
14
Designing of Radar based on the parameters from real life
examples – Open Ended Lab
15
15
Understand and analyse the dependence of scatter spacing on
RCS keeping constant operating frequency
16
16 Final Viva 17

3. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 01
Objective:
To learn how to create and use function files in MATLAB.
Simulation Tool:
MATLAB
Description:
When you write a MATLAB program, you save it to a file called an M-file (named after its .m
file extension). There are two types of M-files that you can write: scripts and functions. Scripts
are the simplest kind of M-file because they have no input or output arguments. They are useful
for automating series of MATLAB commands, such as computations that you must perform
repeatedly from the command line.
Use of basic commands like pi, sqrt, exp, log, log10, sin ftn, cosine ftn.
Lab Task:
Create function files for following equations
(i) 𝑦 = 1.25 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) + 5cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)
(ii) 𝑦 = 0.5𝑥3
− √20𝑥 − 10
(iii) 𝑦 = (𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟_𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙_𝑛𝑜)𝑙𝑜𝑔10(𝑥) + √𝑥 − 𝑒−𝑥2
2 (use 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟_𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙_𝑛𝑜 as a constant)

4. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 02
Compute the Doppler frequency and Doppler shift using the difference between the
transmitted and received signal
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The signal from a target at range Ro at the output of phase detector is
V1 = Vo sin(2πfdt – Φ0)
Where,
fd = Doppler frequency shift = 2vr/ λ or n/Tp
Φ0 = constant Phase shift = 4πRo/λ (Range at time = 0)
Vo = Amplitude of the signal
V2 = Vo sin(2πfd(t – Tp) – Φ0)
Where, Tp = Pulse Repetition Interval
Delay Line Cancelation: V=V1 – V2
The amplitude response hence derived to be:
H(f) = 2 sin(πfd Tp)
Symbol Description
fd Doppler frequency shift
Vo Amplitude of signal
Tp Pulse Repetition Period
V Delay Line Canceler output
H Amplitude Response

5. Task:
Write a MATLAB code to plot the frequency response of a single-tap delay canceler (with
normalized frequency). Amplitude is to be shown in Volts and in dB. Attach the code along
with plots in results.

6. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 03
Objective:
To become familiar with Computation of Radar Equation using MATLAB.
Simulation Tool:
MATLAB
Discussion:
The term 'radar equation' is a misnomer because it covers only a miniscule part of what a radar
is. 'Radar range equation' would be more appropriate. The equation yields an estimate of the
distance at which a radar can be expected to detect a given target, because there are many
influences that aren't taken care of. There is one fixed point in the calculation - the receiver's
minimum detectable signal. After having traveled out to a target and back from it, an echo must
stand out above the receiver's internal noise level so that target detection can be declared.
Range performance gets better the stronger the outgoing radar signal is, the stronger the
reflection from the target is and the more capable the receiver is at collecting the reflection and
sorting it out from the noise. These three parts can be expressed in more detail:
• The strength of the outgoing signal is determined by the transmitter's power and duty
cycle (that is, the percentage of time during which it actually is transmitting) and the
antenna's capability to concentrate it into a given direction.
• The target's reflection back towards the radar is covered in a single figure of merit,
'sigma'. For some reason, sigma takes on the dimensions of square meters and is also
called RCS (Radar Cross Section), Sigma somewhat depends on a target's size. Large
sigma values denote strong reflection.
• The strength of the signal presented to the receiver is again determined by the antenna
(in case it is shared between transmitter and receiver by means of a duplexer) and the
minimum detectable signal level.
• The antenna beam is a conical shape (and so, with increasing distance, the transmitted
signal gets spread over a larger area). If the power measured at some distance is p, then
at twice the distance the power is distributed over an area four times as large (which

7. means a receiver can only detect p/4 of the power if moved from d to 2*d). This is
known as the square law: increasing distance by a factor x decreases power by the factor
x2. The target echo strength undergoes the same square law again and therefore the
received power varies with the fourth power of the distance.
Putting all this together, the equation reads:
4
3
2
2
*
)
*
4
(
*
*
*
Pr
R
G
Pt



=
Input Parameters:
Symbol Description Units
Pt Peak Power Watts
f Frequency Hz
G Gain of the Antenna dB
Ơ Target cross section m2
L Radar loss Meters
R Target range dB
λ Wavelength of the transmit signal meters
Lab Task:
Simulate the Radar equation. The program must consist of a reasonably simple user interface
that will enable users to enter the input parameters for the Radar Equation. Attach the code and
output result.

8. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 04
Objective:
Signal generation and effect of overlapping signals to understand the concept of Noise
affecting the system.
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The signal generation equation is given by following commands of sin, cos, sawtooth and
square wave to give the understanding of signal generation and then adding the signals to
understand the concept of noise affecting the system.

9. Lab Task:
Add the signals using the adding equation and find out the overall results for the signals
Ans = Sin(x)+Sin(y)

10. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 05
Objective:
Analysis of Radar Signal to Noise Ratio against target detection range for different values of
target Radar cross section.
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The radar equation is given by:
SNR = [Pt.G2
.λ2
.ơ] / [(4π)3
.k.Te.B.Fn.L.R4
] ------ (A)
Here,
Symbol Description Units
Pt Peak Power Watts
f Frequency Hz
G Gain of the Antenna dB
Ơ Target cross section m2
Te Effective noise temperature Kelvin
B Bandwidth Hertz
Fn Noise figure dB
K Boltzmann constant J/K
L Radar loss meters
R Target range dB
SNR Signal to noise ratio dB

11. Figure 4.1 SNR versus detection range for three different values of RCS.
Lab Task:
The radar minimum and maximum detection ranges are Rmin = 25km and Rmax = 165km.
The different target cross section values are Ơ= 0 dBm, Ơ = -10 dBm and Ơ = -20 dBm.
Using simulation tool plot a curve for the SNR versus detection range for given values of target
cross section.
Also, attach code and plots along with results.

12. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 07
Objective:
Analysis of Radar Received Power (Pr) against target detection values (RCS) for different
values of Radar ranges.
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The equation linking the SNR and radar pulse width is given by:
τ = [(4π)3.(k).(Te).(B).(Fn).(L).(SNR).(R4)] / [(Pt).(G2).(λ2).(ơ)]
Here,
Symbol Description Units
Pt Peak Power Watts
f Frequency Hz
G Gain of the Antenna dB
Ơ Target cross section m2
Te Effective noise temperature Kelvin
B Bandwidth Hertz
Fn Noise figure dB
K Boltzmann constant J/K
L Radar loss Meters
R Target range dB
SNR Signal to noise ratio dB

13. Figure 6.1 Pulse width versus required SNR for three different detection range values
Lab Task:
The three different range values are R1 = 75 Km, R2 = 100 Km and R3 = 150 Km.
Obtain a plot for pulse width versus required SNR for three given range values. Also attach
the code along with plot.

14. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 07
Objective:
Analysis of Radar Received Power (Pr) against target detection values (RCS) for different
values of Radar ranges.
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The radar equation is given by:
SNR = [Pt.G2
.λ2
.ơ] / [(4π)3
.k.Te.B.Fn.L.R4
] ------ (A)
Syntax:
[snr] = radar_eq (Pt, Freq, G, sigma, Te, B, Nf, loss, range)
Here,
Symbol Description Units
Pt Peak Power Watts
f Frequency Hz
G Gain of the Antenna dB
Ơ Target cross section m2
Te Effective noise temperature Kelvin
B Bandwidth Hertz
Fn Noise figure dB
K Boltzmann constant J/K
L Radar loss meters
R Target range dB
SNR Signal to noise ratio dB

15. Figure 5.1 SNR versus detection range for three different values of radar peak power
Lab Task:
The radar minimum and maximum detection ranges are Rmin = 25Km and Rmax = 165Km.
The different target cross section values are Pt = 2.16 MW, Pt = 1.5 MW and Pt = 0.6 MW.
Plot the SNR versus detection range for given values of Radar Peak Power. Also attach
the code and result plots.

16. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 06
Understanding the concept of Constructive and Destructive interference of two signals using
different phase angles.
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
Two wave signals that are in phase with each other will result in constructive interference.
Two wave signals that are out of phase with each other will result in destructive interference.

17. Lab Task:
Write a MATLAB code to compute and plot the two or more signals which have same
and different phase shift to understand the concept of interference both constructive
and destructive simultaneously. Attach plots and code in results.

18. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 08
Understand and compute the different values of Probability of detection (Pd) and SNR for
different values of Probability of False Alarm (PFA).
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The two statistical relations that we need to consider are; a) the probability of detection (Pd)
i.e. the probability that the received signal plus the additive noise will cross the detection
threshold and a target is detected, and b) the probability of false alarm (Pfa) i.e. the
probability that a weaker received signal plus the additive noise will cross the detection
threshold and target is assumed to be present.
Denote the SNR that is required to achieve a specific PD, given a particular Pfa, when np pulses
are integrated non-coherently by (SNR)NCI. Since the single pulse SNR, (SNR) single , is less
than (SNR)NCI, therefore
⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑁𝐶𝐼 ⁡=⁡(𝑆𝑁𝑅)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒⁡x⁡𝐼(𝑛𝑝)
where I(np)is called the integration improvement factor. An empirically derived expression for
the improvement factor that is accurate within is 0.8 dB was developed by Peebles in his book
‘Radar Principles’, which is given as,
[𝐼(𝑛𝑝)]𝑑𝐵
= 6.79(1 + 0.235𝑃𝐷) (1 +
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 1
𝑃𝑓𝑎
)
46.6
) 𝑙𝑜𝑔10(𝑛𝑝)(1 − 0.140𝑙𝑜𝑔10(𝑛𝑝)
+ 0.018310𝑙𝑜𝑔10(𝑛𝑝)
2
)

19. Lab Task:
Create a Matlab script file, which compares the improvement in SNR with the following
values:
Number of Pulses Probability of detection Probability of false alarm
1 to 5000
Pd1 = 0.5 Pfa1 = 10-2
Pd2 = 0.8 Pfa2 = 10-6
Pd3 = 0.95 Pfa3 = 10-10
Comparison is supposed to be by graph. Take the plots of all values in the same graph, add
relevant information so that the graph can be explained. The single pulse ‘snr’ can be calculated
using the function file developed in Lab 2, where range (km), this time a scalar, should be
chosen as the roll number of the student (student with roll no’s less than 25 can add a 100 to
their roll numbers)
Reading the graph, discuss what can be the optimal number of pulses used for
integration?
Answer the following questions:
(i) What can be the potential drawbacks of pulse integration, apart from increased
complexity?
(ii) What is meant by false alarm? Why does it occur?
(iii) What is the difference between the probability of detection and the probability of false
alarm?

20. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4272L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 09
Understand and analyse the effect of aspect angle on Target Radar Cross Section (RCS)
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The intensity of the backscattered energy that has the same polarization as the radar’s receiving
antenna is used to define the target RCS. When a target is illuminated by RF energy, it acts like
an antenna, and will have near and far fields. Radar cross section fluctuates as a function of
radar aspect angle and frequency.
For the purpose of illustration, isotropic point scatterers are considered.
The Electrical spacing defined between two scatterers relative angles is:
Elec_spacing = 11.0 × S x cos (Θ))
λ
RCS =Magnitude (1.0 + cos((11π) x elec_spacing) + i * sin((11π) x elec_spacing))
RCS(db) = 20 x log10 (RCS)
Here,
Symbol Description
λ Wavelength
Θ Aspect Radians
S Scatter Spacing
F frequency
RCS Radar Cross Section
Elec_Spacing Electrical Spacing

21. Figure 11.1 Aspect angle and radar line of sight
Figure 11.2 Plot of RCS (dB) versus aspect angle
Lab Task:
Write a function code in MATLAB which calculates effect of Aspect angles on RCS. Take
operating frequency to be 3 GHz. Also, plot the scatters separated by 0.5 m scatter spacing.
Change the aspect angle from 0 to 180 degrees and compute the equivalent RCS. Plot RCS vs.
Aspect angle generated. Attach the code and result plots.

22. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4272L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 10
Understand and analyze the dependence of operating frequency on Target Radar Cross
Section (RCS)
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The intensity of the backscattered energy that has the same polarization as the radar’s receiving
antenna is used to define the target RCS. When a target is illuminated by RF energy, it acts like
an antenna, and will have near and far fields. Radar cross section fluctuates as a function of
radar aspect angle and frequency.
For illustration, isotropic point scatterers are considered.
The Electrical spacing defined between two scatterers relative angles is:
elec_spacing = 2 x S
λ
RCS =Magnitude (1.0 + cos((11π) x elec_spacing) + i * sin((11π) x elec_spacing))
RCS(db) = 20 x log10 (RCS)
Symbol Description
λ Wavelength
Θ Aspect Degrees
S Scatter Spacing
Fu Upper frequency
Fl Lower Frequency
RCS Radar Cross Section
elec_Spacing Electrical Spacing

23. Figure 12.1 Illustration of RCS(dB) dependence on Frequency
Task:
Write a function code in MATLAB which calculates effect of frequency change on RCS. Also,
plot the scatters separated by scatter spacing of 0.65m. Plot RCS in dB vs. frequency and attach
the code and plots.

24. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4273L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 12
Objective:
Compute the duty cycle, average transmitted power, pulse energy and pulse repetition
frequency of Radar wave
Simulation Tool:
MATLAB
Input Parameters:
Symbol Description Units
tau Pulse width Seconds
pri PRI Seconds
p_power Peak power Watts
Output parameters:
Symbol Description Units
ep Pulse Energy Joules
prf PRF Hz
Description:
The most common radar signal or waveform is a series of short duration, somewhat
rectangular shaped pulses modulating a sine wave carrier. (This is sometimes called
a pulse train).
Figure 2.1 Train of transmitted and received pulses

25. In general, a pulse radar transmits and receives a train of pulses, as illustrated in figure
1.1. The Inter Pulse Period (IPP) is T, and the pulse width is τ. The IPP is often
referred to as Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI). The inverse of PRI is PRF, denoted by
fr.
fr=1/PRI=1/T
During each PRI the radar radiates energy only for τ seconds and listens for target
returns for the rest of the PRI. The Radar transmitting duty cycle dt is defined as the
ratio dt= τ/T. The radar average transmitted power is
Pav= Pt x dt
Where Pt is radar peak power. The pulse energy is
Ep=Pt τ = Pav T= Pav/fr
Lab Task:
Write a MATLAB code that computes the duty cycle, average transmitted power, pulse
energy and pulse repetition frequency of Radar wave. Attach the code and result output.

26. Department of Avionics
Engineering
The Superior University,
Lahore
Name
AE-4272L Roll no.
Fall 2021 Date
LAB SESSION 13
Understand and analyse the dependence of scatter spacing on RCS keeping constant
operating frequency
Software Required:
MATLAB
Description:
The intensity of the backscattered energy that has the same polarization as the radar’s receiving
antenna is used to define the target RCS. When a target is illuminated by RF energy, it acts like
an antenna, and will have near and far fields. Radar cross section fluctuates as a function of
radar aspect angle and frequency.
For the purpose of illustration, isotropic point scatterers are considered.
The Electrical spacing defined between two scatterers relative angles is:
elec_spacing = 2 x S
λ
RCS =Magnitude (1.0 + cos((11π) x elec_spacing) + i * sin((11π) x elec_spacing))
RCS(db) = 20 x log10 (RCS)
Symbol Description
λ Wavelength
Θ Aspect Degrees
S Scatter Spacing
Fu Upper frequency
Fl Lower Frequency
RCS Radar Cross Section
elec_Spacing Electrical Spacing

27. Task:
Write a function code in MATLAB which calculates effect of scatter spacing change on RCS.
Also, plot the RCS in dB change w.r.t. scatter spacing. Also attach the code and result plots.