This document provides a history of Pakistan's political leadership and constitutional developments from 1947 to 2008. It summarizes the country's prime ministers, presidents, martial laws, and constitutions. Key events include the Objectives Resolution of 1949, the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973, and amendments made over time. Election processes for the National Assembly and Senate are also outlined.
Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan became Pakistan's first military dictator and second president after taking power in a bloodless coup in 1958. As president, he introduced various economic and political reforms but faced opposition over perceived favoritism towards West Pakistan. His presidency also saw the 1965 war with India and the Tashkent Declaration that ended hostilities. Facing growing public resentment, especially from East Pakistan, Ayub resigned in 1969 and handed power to General Yahya Khan.
Constitution of pakistan 1956 qudrat ullah yaqubiAli Khan
The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan established an Islamic Republic with a federal parliamentary system. It divided powers between the central and provincial governments. The unicameral legislature consisted of a 300-member National Assembly with equal representation from East and West Pakistan. The constitution established an independent judiciary headed by a Supreme Court. It also outlined the roles of the President as head of state and the Prime Minister as head of the elected parliamentary government. The constitution protected fundamental rights and established that laws must be consistent with Islamic principles.
General Yahya Khan imposed martial law in Pakistan and refused to give autonomy to East Pakistan as promised by the Awami League after they won a majority of seats in the 1970 election. This led to war breaking out between Pakistan and India, which supported Bengali independence. Due to geographical, social, linguistic, and political differences, East Pakistan separated from West Pakistan on December 16, 1971 to become the independent country of Bangladesh.
The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan introduced several important changes from previous constitutions of 1956 and 1962. It established Pakistan as an Islamic republic with Islam as the state religion. Some key features included being a written, rigid constitution that outlined a federal parliamentary system of government with an independent judiciary. It also ensured fundamental rights for citizens and authorized the president to hold referendums on important national issues.
This document compares Pakistan's 1956 and 1962 constitutions. The 1956 constitution introduced a parliamentary form of government, direct elections, and executive power was held by the prime minister. It had three lists of subjects. The 1962 constitution replaced this with a presidential system, allowed indirect elections, gave the president greater power, and introduced Islamic institutions and a referendum system. It provided only two lists of subjects and established a Supreme Judicial Council. Overall, the two constitutions differed significantly in their forms of government and allocation of executive powers.
The Bogra formula was a political compromise proposed by Prime Minister Bogra in 1953 that sought to abolish the British-appointed governor-general and replace them with an elected figurehead president. It proposed a federal legislature with two houses - an upper house of 50 members equally divided among the five units, and a lower house of 300 members divided among the units based on population. Both houses would have equal powers over all matters. It was received with enthusiasm but also criticism, particularly over giving both houses equal power as the lower house represented the people.
The Kashmir conflict involves four parties - India, Pakistan, China, and Kashmiris. Kashmir was historically ruled by a Hindu maharaja but has a majority Muslim population. At independence, the maharaja signed Kashmir to India but Pakistan disputes this. The region has been a source of conflict through three wars and ongoing tensions. Both countries claim the region but the UN has called for a plebiscite to let Kashmiris decide their own fate. The dispute remains unresolved with no clear solution in sight.
This document provides a history of Pakistan's political leadership and constitutional developments from 1947 to 2008. It summarizes the country's prime ministers, presidents, martial laws, and constitutions. Key events include the Objectives Resolution of 1949, the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973, and amendments made over time. Election processes for the National Assembly and Senate are also outlined.
Field Marshal Muhammad Ayub Khan became Pakistan's first military dictator and second president after taking power in a bloodless coup in 1958. As president, he introduced various economic and political reforms but faced opposition over perceived favoritism towards West Pakistan. His presidency also saw the 1965 war with India and the Tashkent Declaration that ended hostilities. Facing growing public resentment, especially from East Pakistan, Ayub resigned in 1969 and handed power to General Yahya Khan.
Constitution of pakistan 1956 qudrat ullah yaqubiAli Khan
The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan established an Islamic Republic with a federal parliamentary system. It divided powers between the central and provincial governments. The unicameral legislature consisted of a 300-member National Assembly with equal representation from East and West Pakistan. The constitution established an independent judiciary headed by a Supreme Court. It also outlined the roles of the President as head of state and the Prime Minister as head of the elected parliamentary government. The constitution protected fundamental rights and established that laws must be consistent with Islamic principles.
General Yahya Khan imposed martial law in Pakistan and refused to give autonomy to East Pakistan as promised by the Awami League after they won a majority of seats in the 1970 election. This led to war breaking out between Pakistan and India, which supported Bengali independence. Due to geographical, social, linguistic, and political differences, East Pakistan separated from West Pakistan on December 16, 1971 to become the independent country of Bangladesh.
The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan introduced several important changes from previous constitutions of 1956 and 1962. It established Pakistan as an Islamic republic with Islam as the state religion. Some key features included being a written, rigid constitution that outlined a federal parliamentary system of government with an independent judiciary. It also ensured fundamental rights for citizens and authorized the president to hold referendums on important national issues.
This document compares Pakistan's 1956 and 1962 constitutions. The 1956 constitution introduced a parliamentary form of government, direct elections, and executive power was held by the prime minister. It had three lists of subjects. The 1962 constitution replaced this with a presidential system, allowed indirect elections, gave the president greater power, and introduced Islamic institutions and a referendum system. It provided only two lists of subjects and established a Supreme Judicial Council. Overall, the two constitutions differed significantly in their forms of government and allocation of executive powers.
The Bogra formula was a political compromise proposed by Prime Minister Bogra in 1953 that sought to abolish the British-appointed governor-general and replace them with an elected figurehead president. It proposed a federal legislature with two houses - an upper house of 50 members equally divided among the five units, and a lower house of 300 members divided among the units based on population. Both houses would have equal powers over all matters. It was received with enthusiasm but also criticism, particularly over giving both houses equal power as the lower house represented the people.
The Kashmir conflict involves four parties - India, Pakistan, China, and Kashmiris. Kashmir was historically ruled by a Hindu maharaja but has a majority Muslim population. At independence, the maharaja signed Kashmir to India but Pakistan disputes this. The region has been a source of conflict through three wars and ongoing tensions. Both countries claim the region but the UN has called for a plebiscite to let Kashmiris decide their own fate. The dispute remains unresolved with no clear solution in sight.
Gen. Zia ul Haq took power in Pakistan in 1977 through a bloodless coup. Over the next 11 years, he instituted "Islamization" policies and cracked down on press freedoms, political opposition, and dissent. These policies included imposing sharia law, banning student unions and Ahmadi religious practices, and amending the constitution to strengthen the presidency. Zia remained in power through manipulated elections and referendums until his death in a 1988 plane crash.
The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan:
- Established Pakistan as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and included the Objectives Resolution as the preamble.
- Adopted a federal parliamentary system that divided powers between the central and provincial governments.
- Implemented a unicameral legislature called the National Assembly with 300 members equally representing East and West Pakistan.
- Established an independent judiciary headed by a Supreme Court and Chief Justice.
- Designated the President as the head of state who could declare emergencies and appoint high-level officials.
- Named the Prime Minister as the head of government who was indirectly elected and nominated the cabinet.
Pakistan adopted the Government of India Act of 1935 as an interim constitution after independence in 1947. Quaid-e-Azam sought to frame a comprehensive constitution but faced difficulties due to other pressing issues. The first constituent assembly passed the Objectives Resolution in 1949, outlining Pakistan as a democratic Islamic republic. After several amendments and martial laws, the Constitution of 1973 was approved, establishing a parliamentary system. It has since faced multiple amendments that have altered the balance of power between civilian and military institutions.
POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 1947-1958 2222.pptxFasihRehman28
This document provides an overview of the political and constitutional history of Pakistan from 1947 to 1958. It lists the prime ministers and governor generals during this period and some of the major policies and issues Pakistan faced, including early problems establishing infrastructure and government, riots and refugees from the partition, disputes over dividing assets with India, the Kashmir war, and conflicts over water rights. It also describes the Objective Resolution of 1949, the constitutions of 1956 and 1962, and some of their key features.
The document summarizes the Constitution of Pakistan of 1973. It describes the historical background leading to the 1973 Constitution, including the abrogation of previous constitutions. It outlines key provisions of the 1973 Constitution such as fundamental rights, a federal structure, parliamentary government, and Islamic principles. It also discusses amendments made to the Constitution over time and provides conclusions about its aims to uphold Islamic ideology while remaining flexible.
Pakistan and Saudi Arabia have enjoyed close bilateral relations since Pakistan's establishment in 1947. Saudi Arabia was one of Pakistan's strongest supporters during its wars with India and opposes the creation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971. Saudi Arabia supports Pakistan on the Kashmir conflict and was the only country that supported Pakistan's nuclear tests in 1998. Pakistan maintains close military ties with Saudi Arabia and has provided arms and training for Saudi armed forces. Saudi Arabia also provides significant religious, educational, and financial aid to Pakistan and is Pakistan's largest source of petroleum.
The document summarizes the history and current state of relations between Pakistan and Iran. It notes that Pakistan and Iran have longstanding cultural, economic, and political ties dating back to 1949. Key points of cooperation have included trade agreements, joint economic commissions, Iranian support for Pakistan in its wars with India, and discussions around a proposed natural gas pipeline to strengthen economic integration. However, tensions have also emerged at times due to differing positions on issues like the Afghan conflict and Iran's nuclear program. Overall the document outlines the complex relationship between the two neighboring countries.
These reports have been made by me and my classmates at IBA Karachi. The sole purpose of putting these reports here is to help the free flow of knowledge to everyone.
The report discusses the Kashmir issue between India and Pakistan. It provides a history of Kashmir from its sale to Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1846 to the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019. It describes the political events that led to the partition of Kashmir in 1947 and the first Indo-Pak war. It discusses the role of the UN in attempting to resolve the dispute through resolutions calling for a plebiscite. However, the UN has failed to bring peace due to rejection of resolutions by both countries. The abrogation of Article 370 has created restrictions on mobility, communication blockade, disruption of government services and education in Kashmir.
This content is full of information.from this source you can get the history of martial law .After studding this content you will be able to give presentation on Ayub Khan's era. this content is full of information of beigning years of Pakistan
constitution 1973 Islamic republic of Pakistan(2017) pptMalikSayriii
The document summarizes the key aspects of Pakistan's Constitution of 1973, including its origins, salient features, amendments, and provisions related to Islam. It originated after Pakistan gained independence and underwent various interim constitutions until the current 1973 version was unanimously passed. Some key elements include its federal parliamentary system, fundamental rights protections, establishment of an independent judiciary, and the declaration of Islam as the state religion. It has undergone over 20 amendments since its enactment.
Pakistan Foreign Policy...Its objectives and PrinciplesShefa Idrees
Pakistan's foreign policy aims to protect its independence and sovereignty, maintain cordial relations with Muslim countries, and promote world peace and self-determination. The key principles guiding Pakistan's foreign policy are protecting freedom, non-interference in other countries, implementing the UN charter, and supporting international organizations. Pakistan's foreign policy is shaped by its goal of national security and economic well-being, as well as factors like its political system, leadership, and international relationships.
The 1962 Constitution of Pakistan introduced a presidential system that concentrated extensive powers in the presidency. It established a unicameral parliament called the National Assembly without a Senate. A new system of Basic Democracies was introduced where Basic Democrats elected by the people would then elect the president, members of the National Assembly, and members of provincial assemblies. While the constitution ensured judicial independence, the president had authority over judicial appointments and transfers. It also aimed to propagate an Islamic way of life by eliminating un-Islamic practices and ensuring laws aligned with Islamic principles.
The constitution of Pakistan failed in 1956 due to a lack of strong leadership, political training, and economic equality. It established a unicameral legislature that caused problems. Elections were also continually delayed. The constitution of 1962 established an authoritarian presidential system that concentrated power in the president's hands while limiting the national assembly. It used an indirect election method and lacked checks on presidential power and provincial autonomy. Both constitutions ultimately failed due to their authoritarian nature and inability to establish stable democratic systems of governance.
The document outlines the 12 step legislative procedure in Pakistan for passing a bill into law. It begins with introducing a bill in the National Assembly or Senate. It then goes through readings and debates in both houses, with opportunities for amendments. It can be referred to committees. If passed by both houses, the bill is sent to the President for assent to become an Act of Parliament. Key types of bills are also defined such as Government, Private Members, Constitution Amendment and Financial bills.
Political social and economic Reforms of zulfiqar Ali bhuttoAqdasNoor
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto introduced many political, economic, and social reforms during his time as President and later Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1971-1979. Some key reforms included nationalizing major industries, implementing land reforms, establishing rural health centers and education reforms like making primary education free. However, some of the economic reforms led to inefficiencies and high inflation over time. Bhutto sought to reduce inequality but some of his reforms were not effectively implemented and had unintended consequences for Pakistan's economy.
The 1962 Constitution of Pakistan introduced a presidential system of government with extensive powers for the president. It adopted a unicameral parliament called the National Assembly without a Senate. A new system of Basic Democracies was introduced to indirectly elect the president, MNAs, and MPAs. While the constitution ensured an independent judiciary, the president had authority over judge appointments and transfers. It also aimed to establish an Islamic ideological state by implementing Sharia law, eliminating non-Islamic practices, and establishing institutions to promote Islamic teachings.
Constitutional devolopment in pakistan 1947 to 18th Amenment.Dr Tahir Jamil
The document summarizes the constitutional development in Pakistan from 1947 to 1973. It discusses the various constitutions and interim arrangements during this period, including the Objectives Resolution of 1949, the constitutions of 1956 and 1962, the martial law periods, and the process that led to the 1973 constitution. It provides details on the key committees and proposals involved in the constitution-making process and the criticisms of the different documents.
Ayub Khan served as the President of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969. He came to power through a military coup and declared martial law. During his rule, he introduced several reforms including land reforms, establishing industries, building dams for agriculture. However, he faced increasing criticism over corruption, nepotism, and his handling of the 1965 war with India. While there were some developments under his rule, he was unable to maintain national harmony in Pakistan.
The Washington PostWorldViewsFrom France to Denmark, b.docxirened6
The Washington Post
WorldViews
From France to Denmark, bans on full-face Muslim veils are
spreading across Europe
By Rebecca Tan
, Foreign reporter
August 16
Earlier this month, Denmark became the fifth country in Europe to introduce a ban on face coverings in
public places. The policy is widely viewed as being targeted at Muslim women who wear veils such as
the niqab.
Despite protests in the country’s capital, police have started enforcing the law in earnest. On Aug. 3, a
28-year-old wearing the niqab, which covers the entire body except the eyes, was attacked by another
Danish woman who tried to pull her veil off, the Guardian reported. Police fined the Muslim woman
$156.
Legislation around full-face veils has grown increasingly common in Europe, particularly in the past
three years. Six countries have now passed nationwide laws that partially or fully ban face veils in public
places. The latest is the Netherlands, which voted in June to partially ban face veils in locations such as
schools and hospitals, but not on public streets.
CATEGORY COUNTRIES
Nationwide bans or partial bans France, Belgium, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands
Local bans in cities or towns Spain, Italy, Switzerland
No bans, but pending legislation for local or national bans Germany, Latvia, Finland, Luxembourg
Several other European countries, including Spain and Italy, have banned them in individual cities and
towns, and even more have reviewed proposals for bans at a local or national level.
Widespread calls for legislation outlawing face veils in public places started in France, which in 2011
became the first European country to introduce a nationwide ban. At the time, French President
Nicolas Sarkozy argued during a state-of-the-nation address that the burqa — a head-to-toe covering
with mesh screening the eyes, mainly worn in Afghanistan — was a “sign of subservience and
debasement.”
"I want to say solemnly, the burqa is not welcome in France. In our country, we can’t accept women
prisoners behind a screen, cut off from all social life, deprived of all identity. That’s not our idea of
freedom,” Sarkozy said to rapturous applause from lawmakers, the Guardian reported.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/
https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/rebecca-tan/
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/04/first-woman-fined-in-denmark-for-wearing-full-face-veil
https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24118241
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jun/22/islamic-veils-sarkozy-speech-france
Another common justification for the ban is that face veils conceal the identity of the wearer, posing a
security threat.
In Latvia, for example, where just three women among the country’s population of 2 million are
estimated to wear the burqa, debates around a proposed ban on face veils have frequently featured
concerns over security. In 2016, Vaira Vike-Freiberga, the former president of Latvia, told the New York
Times that “covering one’s face in publi.
Gen. Zia ul Haq took power in Pakistan in 1977 through a bloodless coup. Over the next 11 years, he instituted "Islamization" policies and cracked down on press freedoms, political opposition, and dissent. These policies included imposing sharia law, banning student unions and Ahmadi religious practices, and amending the constitution to strengthen the presidency. Zia remained in power through manipulated elections and referendums until his death in a 1988 plane crash.
The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan:
- Established Pakistan as the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and included the Objectives Resolution as the preamble.
- Adopted a federal parliamentary system that divided powers between the central and provincial governments.
- Implemented a unicameral legislature called the National Assembly with 300 members equally representing East and West Pakistan.
- Established an independent judiciary headed by a Supreme Court and Chief Justice.
- Designated the President as the head of state who could declare emergencies and appoint high-level officials.
- Named the Prime Minister as the head of government who was indirectly elected and nominated the cabinet.
Pakistan adopted the Government of India Act of 1935 as an interim constitution after independence in 1947. Quaid-e-Azam sought to frame a comprehensive constitution but faced difficulties due to other pressing issues. The first constituent assembly passed the Objectives Resolution in 1949, outlining Pakistan as a democratic Islamic republic. After several amendments and martial laws, the Constitution of 1973 was approved, establishing a parliamentary system. It has since faced multiple amendments that have altered the balance of power between civilian and military institutions.
POLITICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF PAKISTAN 1947-1958 2222.pptxFasihRehman28
This document provides an overview of the political and constitutional history of Pakistan from 1947 to 1958. It lists the prime ministers and governor generals during this period and some of the major policies and issues Pakistan faced, including early problems establishing infrastructure and government, riots and refugees from the partition, disputes over dividing assets with India, the Kashmir war, and conflicts over water rights. It also describes the Objective Resolution of 1949, the constitutions of 1956 and 1962, and some of their key features.
The document summarizes the Constitution of Pakistan of 1973. It describes the historical background leading to the 1973 Constitution, including the abrogation of previous constitutions. It outlines key provisions of the 1973 Constitution such as fundamental rights, a federal structure, parliamentary government, and Islamic principles. It also discusses amendments made to the Constitution over time and provides conclusions about its aims to uphold Islamic ideology while remaining flexible.
Pakistan and Saudi Arabia have enjoyed close bilateral relations since Pakistan's establishment in 1947. Saudi Arabia was one of Pakistan's strongest supporters during its wars with India and opposes the creation of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971. Saudi Arabia supports Pakistan on the Kashmir conflict and was the only country that supported Pakistan's nuclear tests in 1998. Pakistan maintains close military ties with Saudi Arabia and has provided arms and training for Saudi armed forces. Saudi Arabia also provides significant religious, educational, and financial aid to Pakistan and is Pakistan's largest source of petroleum.
The document summarizes the history and current state of relations between Pakistan and Iran. It notes that Pakistan and Iran have longstanding cultural, economic, and political ties dating back to 1949. Key points of cooperation have included trade agreements, joint economic commissions, Iranian support for Pakistan in its wars with India, and discussions around a proposed natural gas pipeline to strengthen economic integration. However, tensions have also emerged at times due to differing positions on issues like the Afghan conflict and Iran's nuclear program. Overall the document outlines the complex relationship between the two neighboring countries.
These reports have been made by me and my classmates at IBA Karachi. The sole purpose of putting these reports here is to help the free flow of knowledge to everyone.
The report discusses the Kashmir issue between India and Pakistan. It provides a history of Kashmir from its sale to Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1846 to the abrogation of Article 370 in 2019. It describes the political events that led to the partition of Kashmir in 1947 and the first Indo-Pak war. It discusses the role of the UN in attempting to resolve the dispute through resolutions calling for a plebiscite. However, the UN has failed to bring peace due to rejection of resolutions by both countries. The abrogation of Article 370 has created restrictions on mobility, communication blockade, disruption of government services and education in Kashmir.
This content is full of information.from this source you can get the history of martial law .After studding this content you will be able to give presentation on Ayub Khan's era. this content is full of information of beigning years of Pakistan
constitution 1973 Islamic republic of Pakistan(2017) pptMalikSayriii
The document summarizes the key aspects of Pakistan's Constitution of 1973, including its origins, salient features, amendments, and provisions related to Islam. It originated after Pakistan gained independence and underwent various interim constitutions until the current 1973 version was unanimously passed. Some key elements include its federal parliamentary system, fundamental rights protections, establishment of an independent judiciary, and the declaration of Islam as the state religion. It has undergone over 20 amendments since its enactment.
Pakistan Foreign Policy...Its objectives and PrinciplesShefa Idrees
Pakistan's foreign policy aims to protect its independence and sovereignty, maintain cordial relations with Muslim countries, and promote world peace and self-determination. The key principles guiding Pakistan's foreign policy are protecting freedom, non-interference in other countries, implementing the UN charter, and supporting international organizations. Pakistan's foreign policy is shaped by its goal of national security and economic well-being, as well as factors like its political system, leadership, and international relationships.
The 1962 Constitution of Pakistan introduced a presidential system that concentrated extensive powers in the presidency. It established a unicameral parliament called the National Assembly without a Senate. A new system of Basic Democracies was introduced where Basic Democrats elected by the people would then elect the president, members of the National Assembly, and members of provincial assemblies. While the constitution ensured judicial independence, the president had authority over judicial appointments and transfers. It also aimed to propagate an Islamic way of life by eliminating un-Islamic practices and ensuring laws aligned with Islamic principles.
The constitution of Pakistan failed in 1956 due to a lack of strong leadership, political training, and economic equality. It established a unicameral legislature that caused problems. Elections were also continually delayed. The constitution of 1962 established an authoritarian presidential system that concentrated power in the president's hands while limiting the national assembly. It used an indirect election method and lacked checks on presidential power and provincial autonomy. Both constitutions ultimately failed due to their authoritarian nature and inability to establish stable democratic systems of governance.
The document outlines the 12 step legislative procedure in Pakistan for passing a bill into law. It begins with introducing a bill in the National Assembly or Senate. It then goes through readings and debates in both houses, with opportunities for amendments. It can be referred to committees. If passed by both houses, the bill is sent to the President for assent to become an Act of Parliament. Key types of bills are also defined such as Government, Private Members, Constitution Amendment and Financial bills.
Political social and economic Reforms of zulfiqar Ali bhuttoAqdasNoor
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto introduced many political, economic, and social reforms during his time as President and later Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1971-1979. Some key reforms included nationalizing major industries, implementing land reforms, establishing rural health centers and education reforms like making primary education free. However, some of the economic reforms led to inefficiencies and high inflation over time. Bhutto sought to reduce inequality but some of his reforms were not effectively implemented and had unintended consequences for Pakistan's economy.
The 1962 Constitution of Pakistan introduced a presidential system of government with extensive powers for the president. It adopted a unicameral parliament called the National Assembly without a Senate. A new system of Basic Democracies was introduced to indirectly elect the president, MNAs, and MPAs. While the constitution ensured an independent judiciary, the president had authority over judge appointments and transfers. It also aimed to establish an Islamic ideological state by implementing Sharia law, eliminating non-Islamic practices, and establishing institutions to promote Islamic teachings.
Constitutional devolopment in pakistan 1947 to 18th Amenment.Dr Tahir Jamil
The document summarizes the constitutional development in Pakistan from 1947 to 1973. It discusses the various constitutions and interim arrangements during this period, including the Objectives Resolution of 1949, the constitutions of 1956 and 1962, the martial law periods, and the process that led to the 1973 constitution. It provides details on the key committees and proposals involved in the constitution-making process and the criticisms of the different documents.
Ayub Khan served as the President of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969. He came to power through a military coup and declared martial law. During his rule, he introduced several reforms including land reforms, establishing industries, building dams for agriculture. However, he faced increasing criticism over corruption, nepotism, and his handling of the 1965 war with India. While there were some developments under his rule, he was unable to maintain national harmony in Pakistan.
The Washington PostWorldViewsFrom France to Denmark, b.docxirened6
The Washington Post
WorldViews
From France to Denmark, bans on full-face Muslim veils are
spreading across Europe
By Rebecca Tan
, Foreign reporter
August 16
Earlier this month, Denmark became the fifth country in Europe to introduce a ban on face coverings in
public places. The policy is widely viewed as being targeted at Muslim women who wear veils such as
the niqab.
Despite protests in the country’s capital, police have started enforcing the law in earnest. On Aug. 3, a
28-year-old wearing the niqab, which covers the entire body except the eyes, was attacked by another
Danish woman who tried to pull her veil off, the Guardian reported. Police fined the Muslim woman
$156.
Legislation around full-face veils has grown increasingly common in Europe, particularly in the past
three years. Six countries have now passed nationwide laws that partially or fully ban face veils in public
places. The latest is the Netherlands, which voted in June to partially ban face veils in locations such as
schools and hospitals, but not on public streets.
CATEGORY COUNTRIES
Nationwide bans or partial bans France, Belgium, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark, the Netherlands
Local bans in cities or towns Spain, Italy, Switzerland
No bans, but pending legislation for local or national bans Germany, Latvia, Finland, Luxembourg
Several other European countries, including Spain and Italy, have banned them in individual cities and
towns, and even more have reviewed proposals for bans at a local or national level.
Widespread calls for legislation outlawing face veils in public places started in France, which in 2011
became the first European country to introduce a nationwide ban. At the time, French President
Nicolas Sarkozy argued during a state-of-the-nation address that the burqa — a head-to-toe covering
with mesh screening the eyes, mainly worn in Afghanistan — was a “sign of subservience and
debasement.”
"I want to say solemnly, the burqa is not welcome in France. In our country, we can’t accept women
prisoners behind a screen, cut off from all social life, deprived of all identity. That’s not our idea of
freedom,” Sarkozy said to rapturous applause from lawmakers, the Guardian reported.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/
https://www.washingtonpost.com/people/rebecca-tan/
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/aug/04/first-woman-fined-in-denmark-for-wearing-full-face-veil
https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24118241
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jun/22/islamic-veils-sarkozy-speech-france
Another common justification for the ban is that face veils conceal the identity of the wearer, posing a
security threat.
In Latvia, for example, where just three women among the country’s population of 2 million are
estimated to wear the burqa, debates around a proposed ban on face veils have frequently featured
concerns over security. In 2016, Vaira Vike-Freiberga, the former president of Latvia, told the New York
Times that “covering one’s face in publi.
08112012 1144The New Yorker Digital Edition Jan 16, 2012.docxhoney725342
08/11/2012 11:44The New Yorker Digital Edition : Jan 16, 2012
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08/11/2012 11:44The New Yorker Digital Edition : Jan 16, 2012
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France: Headscarf Ban Violates Religious Freedom I Human Rights Watch 12/8/10 3:14 PM
France: Headscarf Ban Violates Religious Freedom
By Disproportionately Affecting Muslim Girls, Proposed Law Is Discriminatory
The proposed law is an.
February 26, 2004 unwarranted infringement on the
right to religious practice. For
(New York, February 27, 2004)—The proposed French law banning Islamic headscarves and many Muslims, wearing a
other visible religious symbols in state schools would violate the rights to freedom of religion headscarf is not only about
and expression, Human Rights Watch said today. The law, which forbids "signs and dress that religious expression, it is about
religious obligation.
conspicuously show the religious affiliation of students," mill be debated in the French Senate
on March 2. Ken_neth Roth Executive Director
"The proposed law is an unwarranted infringement on the right to religious practice," said Kenneth Roth, executive director of Human Rights Watch. "For many Muslims, wearing a
headscarf is not only about religious expression, it is about religious obligation."
International human rights law obliges state authorities to avoid coercion in matters of religious freedom, and this obligation must be taken into account when devising school dress codes. The proposed prohibition on headscarves in France, as with laws in some
Muslim countries that force girls to wear headscarves in schools, violates this principle.
Under international law, states can only limit religious practices when there is a compelling public safety reason, when the manifestation of religious beliefs would impinge on the rights of others, or when it serves a legitimate educational function (such as prohibiting practices that preclude student-teacher interaction). Muslim headscarves, Sikh turbans, Jewish skullcaps and large
Christian crosses—which are arnong the visible religious symbols that would be prohibited—do not pose a threat to public health, order or morals; they have no effect on the fundamental rights and freedoms of other students; and they do not undermine a school's educational function.
Some supporters of the proposed law—known as the "Draft law concerning the applica ...
Memo: Law & Governance: France's burqa banSteven Lauwers
France's law banning the wearing of face-covering garments like the Islamic burqa or niqab in public spaces may violate Article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which guarantees freedom of religion. The law interferes with Muslim women's ability to manifest their religion. While the aim of the law is legitimate in ensuring security and gender equality, a total ban on face coverings in all public areas is a disproportionate measure and too broad an limitation of religious freedom protected by the Convention. A narrower law or exceptions could achieve the aims without such overreach.
The Islamisation of Europe - What can be Done to Stop and Reverse ItPeter Hammond
- The document discusses the growing Muslim population in cities in Belgium and the Netherlands, noting that Muslims will likely comprise the majority of Brussels' population by 2030. It describes ways in which Belgian society has become more Islamic through changes to school calendars, holidays, and political policies that accommodate Islamic practices. It expresses concern that some Muslim politicians have vowed to implement Islamic sharia law in Belgium and that proposed legislation could criminalize criticism of Islam.
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THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
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“Current Social, Moral and Political Problems and Challenges of Muslims and their Solutions in the Light of Islamic Teachings”
1. Course Name
Islamic Studies
Project’s Main Topic
“Current Social, Moral and Political Problems and Challenges of Muslims
and their Solutions in the Light of Islamic Teachings”
Sub-Topic
“Change in Hijab Rules in France or Europe”
Group Members
1. Momina Shakir (SP18 BPY-012)
2. Summan Zahid (SP18 BPY-047)
3. Laiba Aftab Malik (SP18 BPY-063)
4. Marwa Khursheed (SP18 BPY-065)
Moderator’s Name
Ma’am Farhat Nisar
Date of Submission
May 14th, 2018
2. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
1
o Introduction:
This topic focuses upon the situation of Hijab-wearing-Muslims all across the Europe,
including countries like France, Belgium, Austria, Denmark, Germany and many more. It has
been considered a major issue as the rules of Europe forced Muslim ladies to take off their
Veils which, for them, is a sacred obligation. France was the first country to ban the facial
Hijab of women due to the perspective that it oppresses women.
It is a huge social, moral and political problem as Hijab is not about hiding from people, but
protecting ones’ own self from others and giving them an indication to be in certain limits. As
it is something very sacred so these rules directly hit the Muslim nations’ belief that may
provoke aggression in some which can create a great difference and controversies among the
European and Islamic states harming their interrelations as well.
o Findings and Discussions:
There are many countries in Europe that literally or somehow, banned Hijab for women.
These include:
1. France
2. Belgium
3. Austria
4. Germany
5. Netherlands
6. Britain
7. Switzerland
8. Italy
9. Russia
10. Denmark
11. Spain
12. Norway
1. Hijab Rules In France:
France has been imposing Hijab restrictions since many years. France banned the head-
scarves for Muslim students on 10th February, 2004 and was the first country to ban the full
3. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
2
face Hijab in public areas. This happened on 11th April, 2011. And if anybody would still be
seen with it then she was fined. The president named Nicolas Sarkozy, whose administration
passed this rule, said that Veil is something that oppresses women and such things will not be
accepted in France. In 2014, the Court analysed the ban on full-face veil and said that
although it is a religious practice but on the other hand, it prevents one from interacting with
the woman who wears it. Moreover, it is a threat to socialization as it acts as a barrier
between people stopping them from communicating. The court said that it refrain people
from ‘living together’. In 2016, the France put a ban on wearing of the full body covering
swimsuits called as ‘burkinis’. The Prime Minister named Manuel Valls called such suits an
affirmation of political Islam in open places. Although, this burkini ban rule was rejected by
the French administration and court afterwards.
According to a Forum study, Muslim population is about 4.7 million in France. And no
doubt, these 4.7 million people were and still are being affected by these rules that they face
in different shapes after the gap of few years.
Recent news (April 16, 2018):
“Muslim women should be allowed to wear what they want.”
Emmanuel Macron, President of France, has ruled out extending his country’s ban on
Muslim dress.
In an interview on French TV, Macron said that while he was personally not in favour of the
hijab, religious tolerance was key.
“I am not especially happy that some women choose to wear the headscarf when out in
public, but it must be tolerated,”
Emmanuel Macron ~“The Express.”
2. Hijab Rules In Belgium:
Belgium followed the footsteps of France in the matter of full face covering veil of Muslim
women. The government unanimously passed this rule in 2011. According to this, any
garment that hides one’s face from others in public places was strictly prohibited. If any
women would be seen with this, she would be punished with spending seven days in jail or
4. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
3
paying 1378 euros. In December 2012, as a reply to several appeals of abrogating this rule,
The Constitutional Court of Belgium said that this rule does not influence any sort of human
rights in a negative manner and thus, annulled all of them.
Before the passing of this law, Burka was already banned in several districts due to local
rules that were made solely to restrict women from hiding their faces.
On 11th July, 2017, The European Court talked in a favour of Belgium ban upon the full face
covering and called this restriction ‘necessary for the democratic society’. The Court also
said that it is a protection, not only for the rights of humans but for their freedom as well.
Although, Islam is in minority in Belgium but still it comprises 4-6% of Muslims there who
were greatly affected by these controversies.
3. Hijab Rules In Austria:
In January 2017, the ruling authority of Austria passed the rule of banning face covering
veils including Niqab and Burka in public places. This was a general ban for the workers
wearing headscarves or other things highlighting their religious values.
According to Austrian ruling authority, face covering veil actually hinders the ‘open
communication’ which should be the most basic right for an open society.
After estimation, there were only about 150 women in Austria who used to wear full face veil
but there was fear in everybody (among tourists too) as this law was imposed upon
everywhere in Austria.
Recent News (April 25, 2018):
The Austrian government has proclaimed its intention to ban the wearing of the hijab for girls
in local government-run kindergartens up to the end of elementary school (age 10).
Obviously, this is a non-issue, since normally Muslim girls at that age do not wear the hijab
anyway.
The ban will be introduced under the rubric of a "child protection law" to be drawn up later
this year, according to the Freedom Party education Minister Heinz Fassmann, and he
announced it would function as a "symbolic act" to protect Austrian culture from some
Islamic influences.
5. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
4
4. Hijab Rules In Germany:
On 24th September, 2003, Germany’s federal constitutional court favoured an Afghan born
teacher who wanted to wear headscarf in school but it said that the state can still change the
local rules. Among the 16 states of Germany, half of them were banned from wearing
headscarves affecting 4.4-4.7 million Muslims over there.
On December 16th, 2016, the Chancellor Angela Markel said that full face veil should be
banned in Germany wherever ‘it is legally possible’. Though, there was not any kind of
national law imposed except for these proposals. But these draft laws were supported by the
German Parliament in 2017 saying that veils will be prohibited for workers in civil services,
judiciary or military professions.
Recent News (May 10, 2018):
A court in the German capital, Berlin, has ruled that the city was right to bar a Muslim
teacher, who wears a hijab (headscarf), from taking classes in a primary school, rejecting her
discrimination complaint.
Justice Arne Boyer said on Wednesday that the city state's so-called neutrality law, which
bars the wearing of overt religious symbols and clothing for state employees on duty,
weighed stronger than the right to free religious expression.
5. Hijab Rules In Netherlands:
In November 2016, full veil in public areas including schools, hospitals and on transport was
banned. Niqab, burka, ski-masks and even helmets were banned. This rule was passed by
Dutch senate. The Prime Minister said that punishment for the law-breaking acts will be fine
up to 410 euros. He called it as ‘religious-neutral’.
Around 6 million residents are Muslims in Netherlands but only 300 of them wear face
covering veils.
6. Hijab Rules In Britain:
There is not any hard and strict rule but in 2007, only the schools were allowed to choose
their own dress code regardless of the religion base.
6. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
5
In fact, in 2010, the schools secretary Ed Balls said that it is not ‘British’ to tell what to wear
in the streets when the UK Independence Party said that face covering veils should be
banned.
In 2014, UKIP won 24 seats in Britain elections. The former UKIP leader said that full face
covering veils are a symbol of ‘increasingly dividing Britain’ as they oppress women and are
a threat to secure environment. 57% of the British population were against the wearing of
burka in 2016.
Recent News (May 9. 2018):
A Muslim primary school teacher has lost her bid to overturn a law banning the wearing of
religious clothing by public servants in Berlin.
The Berlin labour court judge ruled that the city-state's neutrality law for teachers, police and
court officials was constitutional.
Germany's 16 states have differing laws on headscarves in schools.
Three years ago Germany's constitutional court overturned a blanket ban on teachers wearing
them.
The federal court cited religious freedom, although civil servants across Germany are barred
from covering their faces. The full face-veil is not allowed on a national level but the hijab is.
7. Hijab Rules In Switzerland:
In late 2009, the Swiss Justice Minister said that if more Muslims start to wear face covering
veils, then they will be banned as they will feel ‘uncomfortable’ in them. In 2013, 65% of the
electorates voted in the favour of banning of burka or any other garment hiding the face in
public places.
In 2016, a new law was passed of banning the burka and if anybody would not follow this
rule then she will be fined 9,200 euros.
Recent News (January 11, 2018):
A recent online poll run on behalf of the newspapers Le Matin Dimanche and
SonntagsZeitung suggests a large majority of Swiss voters are in favour of a nationwide
ban on face covering in public.
7. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
6
8. Hijab Rules In Italy:
There are several local towns and districts in Italy that banned the face covering garments
over there. North-western town of Novara is one of them. It is one of the several local ruling
authorities that banned the wearing of Niqabs and burkas.
In December 2015, burka ban was passed which was affected and implemented in 2016 in the
region of Lombardy, Italy. Although, these proposals were followed in regions of Italy, there
was no national enforcement by the government.
9. Hijab Rules In Russia:
Russia’s region named Stavropol was the first one to impose Hijab banning rule. This was
taken into consider by Russia’s Supreme Court in 2013.
Although in Chechnya, the women are ordered to wear headscarves in buildings. This was
imposed by the President Ramdan Kadyrov in 2007 and is still followed on strict basis.
10. Hijab Rules In Denmark:
In February 2018, Denmark’s Justice Minister said about the face covering veil that;
‘It is incompatible with the values of the Danish’s society or the respect for the community
to keep the face hidden when meeting each other in public space.’
The government said that it anybody is found wearing Niqab or burka, she will be fined of
about 1000 kroner and if she repeatedly wears it, then the fine can be increased up to 10,000
kroner. Though, it was estimated that fewer than 200 women will be affected by this rule.
This rule was supported by three political parties of Denmark with an exception that dresses
for Halloween or sports will be allowed.
Recent News (February 6, 2018):
Denmark poised to ban Islamic full-face veils
'It is incompatible with the values of the Danish society', says country's Justice Minister
The Danish government is poised to become the next European country to introduce a ban on
Islamic full-face coverings in public places.
8. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
7
The government said it planned to fine people who wore items including the burqa and the
Niqab which are worn by some Muslim women.
Under the proposals anyone found covering their face would be fined 1,000 kroner (£120), or
up to 10,000 kroner (£1,200) if they are repeatedly caught.
11. Hijab Rules In Spain:
There is no national rule in Spain for the veils to be banned but in 2010 the city of Barcelona
banned the full face covering garments in some public areas named libraries, markets and
municipal offices. The rule for the banning of veil in the town of Lleida was abolished by the
Supreme Court by saying that it is a kind of barrier for religious freedom and liberty. Many
areas of Catalonia banned the wearing of burka and Niqab. In 2013, these rules were
diminished in some parts by Supreme Court due to ‘limitation of religious freedom’ but other
areas still impose and follow such acts.
12. Hijab Rules In Norway:
Norway is also one of those countries that ban the face covering veils. It was imposed in June
2017 and specific areas were accounted for this. These places include kindergartens, schools
and universities. Although, head coverings were not prohibited, the restrictions were imposed
only upon the face covering garments. These include Niqab and Burka.
Recent News (March 23, 2018):
Three ministers from the Norwegian government presented on Friday a proposal to ban
face-covering garments at schools, day-cares and other educational institutions.
The proposal was presented by ministers from each of the three parties in the coalition
government – Finance Minister Siv Jensen (Progress), Minister of Education and Integration
Jan Tore Sanner (Conservative) and Minister of Education Iselin Nybø (Liberal).
“Even though few people wear the burqa and Niqab today, there are instances of it. A
national ban will make things clearer for everyone,” Sanner said to NRK.
The ban will ensure good communication in educational contexts, the minister added.
9. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
8
o Conclusions:
From the above information, one can conclude that several European countries passed such
laws that are against the religious beliefs of Muslims. All the countries mentioned above,
whether on the national basis or on the base of local or district power only, forcefully
imposed the acts that abrogate the Islamic rules. These include the wearing of Hijab, Niqab
and Burka. Banning of such garments forced Muslims, especially the Muslim women to
come to streets and roads and protest for their rights. According to different European
governments, these rules are being passed just because for the protection of human rights,
open communication purpose, security reasons, freedom issues or the discrimination problem
ignoring the fact that it is a religious obligation.
o Recommendations:
Hijab; that is, the head covering, Niqab; which is the face covering with eyes uncovered,
Burka; which is the full covering with a mesh of screen or see through garment in front of
eyes, are the most sacred beliefs that a Muslim woman keeps stuck to. It is not just a covering
but a proper way of life for her. The government should understand that the religious issues
are sensitive with their own uniqueness that should not be touched. That would not only
provoke aggression among different people but also result in the negative effect on
governments’ relations. The discrimination or the dividing of nations or countries would be
as a result of this act, not by banning the veils. Moreover, Hijab or the face covering veils is
just the protection from evil eye and a message for one to stay in limits. There is no such hard
and strict rule in Islam for prohibition in talking to or communicating with others. Freedom
will not be secured by these laws. Instead, meaning of the word ‘freedom’ will be properly
understood when all the people, no matter from which religion, caste, creed or nation they
belong to, will be allowed to practice their beliefs without any fear of being punished, except
for the reason that the belief may not harm any other individual or his social, religious or
cultural values. Apart from this, human rights can never be threatened by face covering acts.
Instead, they are preserved more than before. For instance, if a woman wears something that
catches the attention of almost every man, or she has a beautiful hair of facial features that,
even unintentionally, can attract a man, will not be secured even in the western European
countries as compared to the woman who is covered as a whole. All the governments should
know all these terms because by considering these definitions and strictly following them,
one can step towards development.
10. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
9
Moreover, being a Muslim, we believe that if Allah has mentioned something in Quran, then
it must be of great importance. The topic of Hijab is discussed in Quran.
“O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring
down over themselves [part] of their outer garments. That is more suitable that they will be
known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful.” (Surah Al-Ahzab)
On another occasion Allah says;
“And tell the believing women to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their private parts
and not expose their adornment except that which [necessarily] appears thereof and to
wrap [a portion of] their headcovers over their chests and not expose their adornment
except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands' fathers, their sons, their husbands'
sons, their brothers, their brothers' sons, their sisters' sons, their women, that which their
right hands possess, or those male attendants having no physical desire, or children who
are not yet aware of the private aspects of women. And let them not stamp their feet to
make known what they conceal of their adornment. And turn to Allah in repentance, all of
you, O believers that you might succeed.” (Surah Al-Noor)
These verses show the importance of Pardah (Hijab or veils) in Islam. If somebody is not
allowed to practice Islamic beliefs in a particular area, he or she should migrate from there as
per orders from Allah. This is a strong recommendation for the Muslims to leave that part and
go where there are no restrictions upon practicing Islam. Allah says in Quran;
“When angels take the souls of those who die in sin against their souls, they say: "In what
(plight) Were ye?" They reply: "Weak and oppressed Were we in the earth." They say:
"Was not the earth of Allah spacious enough for you to move yourselves away (From
evil)?" Such men will find their abode in Hell,- What an evil refuge!” (Surah Al-Nisa)
Allah says in Surah Anfaal;
“Those who believe, and adopt exile, and fight for the Faith, in the cause of Allah as well
as those who give (them) asylum and aid,- these are (all) in very truth the Believers: for
them is the forgiveness of sins and a provision most generous.” (Surah Al-Anfaal)
11. ISLAMICSTUDIES: “Change inHijabRulesinFrance or Europe”
10
Allah says about Hazrat Loot (AS);
But Lut had faith in Him: He said: "I will leave home for the sake of my Lord: for He is
Exalted in Might, and Wise." (Surah Al-Ankaboot)
All these verses reflect the worth of practicing of religion. We, as Allah’s slaves, came to this
world to please Allah. If we are not allowed to practice our religion in a particular region,
then we should keep this thing in our minds that Allah’s earth is much bigger than that area.
One should migrate from there because our job is to make Allah happy with our deeds.
References:
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-13038095
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/life/burka-bans-the-countries-where-muslim-
women-cant-wear-veils/
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/denmark-ban-islamic-fullface-
veils-france-belgium-burqa-niqab-hijab-a8197931.html
https://www.dailysabah.com/islamophobia/2018/03/23/norway-proposes-law-to-
prohibit-burqa-niqab-in-education
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/14/headscarves-and-muslim-veil-ban-
debate-timeline
https://www.asil.org/insights/volume/21/issue/15/veil-bans-european-court-human-
rights
http://www.thejournal.ie/belgium-full-veil-3491565-Jul2017/
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/07/07/burka-ban-for-muslims-enforced-in-
switzerland-with-fines-of-up-t/
https://quran.com/24/30-31
https://quran.com/33/59
http://quranindex.net/kelime.php?id=8467
http://emirateswoman.com/emmanueal-macron-hijab-tolerated/