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Radiographers play an important role in medical imaging and work under the supervision of radiologists to perform diagnostic imaging tests. Their responsibilities include preparing patients for exams, operating medical imaging equipment, and ensuring quality and safety standards are met. They must have strong attention to detail, communication skills, and the ability to work well under pressure as imaging tests are crucial for medical diagnosis and treatment.

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Title: Sense of Smell Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology Qualifications: MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore) FCPS Physiology ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU) MPH (GC University, Faisalabad) MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan) Learning Objectives: Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness. Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction. Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain. Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential. Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes. Key Topics: Olfactory Genes: 3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes. 400 genes for odorant receptors. Olfactory Membrane: Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity. Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum. Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate. Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters. Olfactory Mucosa: Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell. Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment. Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months. Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus. Stimulation of Olfactory Cells: Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia. Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve. Quality of a Good Odorant: Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble. Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus. Membrane Potential and Action Potential: Resting membrane potential: -55mV. Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength. Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell: Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation. Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system. Primary Sensations of Smell: Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid. Odor Detection Threshold: Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm). Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations. Characteristics of Smell: Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein. Behavioral and emotional influences of smell. Transmission of Olfactory Signals: From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition. Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path

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