Creation of the stack
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Over millions of years, volcanic activity and uplift formed a headland composed of weak breccia conglomerate along the coast. Erosion from waves up to 1.5 meters high opened cracks in the headland through hydraulic action and spray splash. Around 30,000 to 10,000 years ago, a cave formed as the cracks widened. Between 1,000 to 500 years ago, vegetation growth and erosion broke through the headland, creating a sea arch. Finally, from 5-400 years ago, the weakened arch roof collapsed, leaving the isolated 20 meter tall Motutara Island stack.
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Volcano terms
caldera
cinder cone
dacite
debris avalanche
dike
dome
dome lava fountain
effusive eruption
eruption cloud
eruption size
fault
fissure
fumarole
gas
geyser
hornito
hummock
kipuka
lahar
lapilli
lava
lava cascade
lava channel
lava delta
lava drapery
lava flow
lava fountain
lava fountain dome
lava lake
lava spillway
lava surge
lava tube
limu
littoral cone
maar
magma
mineral
mud volcano
obsidian
pahoehoe
pahoehoe blister
pahoehoe coil
pahoehoe entrail
pahoehoe - ropy
pahoehoe toe
Pele's hair
Pele's tears
phreatic eruption
pillow lava
plinian eruption
pit crater
pumice
pyroclastic flow
reticulite
rhyolite
rift zone
rock
rootless shield
scoria
shield volcano
spatter
spatter cone and rampart
spatter and cinder cone
stratovolcano
Strombolian eruption
tephra
tree mold
tsunami
tumulus
vent
volcanic dome
volcano
volcanic rocks
volcanic gases
Vulcanian eruption
caldera
cinder cone
hornito
maar
mud volcano
shield volcano
spatter cone
stratovolcano
volcanic dome
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Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods and droughts can occur when natural hazards like seismic activity or extreme weather events negatively impact human lives and property. Earthquakes in particular generate seismic waves that are measured on the Richter scale and can trigger secondary events like tsunamis or landslides. Major historical earthquakes include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed over 200,000 people. Other natural hazards like hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanoes and floods can also lead to loss of life and damage when they interact with vulnerable human systems. Droughts cause problems like hunger, wildfires and disease through lack of water over an extended period.
Cyclones and hurricanes
Cyclones refer to rotating weather systems that form around areas of low pressure and are known by different names worldwide, including hurricanes, cyclones, typhoons, and willy-willies. Hurricanes are violent tropical storms that form over warm tropical oceans between July and October, with wind speeds over 120 km/hr. They have an eye at the center surrounded by heavy rain and clouds, with very low pressure and strong winds that rotate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Undersea earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions and other disturbances can displace large amounts of water and generate destructive tsunamis that travel very quickly across oceans before reaching shorelines.
Notes on living with tectonic hazards n levels
1. Tectonic hazards such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are caused by movements of the Earth's crust along tectonic plates. The plates move due to convection currents in the upper mantle and subduction of denser oceanic plates under lighter continental plates.
2. Where plates diverge, mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys are formed. As plates converge, fold mountains like the Himalayas or Andes are formed. Transform boundaries like the San Andreas Fault cause earthquakes as the plates slide past each other.
3. Volcanoes form at plate boundaries due to upwelling of magma. Shield volcanoes have low, broad slopes while stratovolcanoes
Tsunami
Tsunami is a Japanese word Tsu means ‘harbour’ and nami means ‘wave’.
They are called tidal waves but they have actually nothing to do with the tides. However their appearance from shore is similar to rapidly rising or falling tides.
Tsunami is a series of wave created when water is moved very quickly.
Tsunami is gravity wave system, triggered by vertical disturbances in ocean. They are long waves sometime with hundreds of miles b/w their crests, just like the concentric waves generated by an object dropped into a pool.
First tsunami was recorded in 1480 B.C. in eastern Mediterranean, when the Minoan civilization was wiped out.
A large tsunami accompanied by the earthquake of Lisbon in 1755.
The Kutch earthquake of June 16, 1819 generated strong tsunami which submerged the coastal areas and damage to ships and country made boats of fishermen.
North and South American records have dated such
events back to 1788 for Alaska and 1562 for Chile. Records of Hawaiian tsunami go back to 1821.
Tsunami hits the Mona Passage off Puerto Rico in 1918, grand banks of Canada in 1929.
Coastal landscapes
This document discusses various types of coastal erosion and protection methods. It describes the characteristics and impacts of constructive and destructive waves. It also explains various coastal landforms that form from erosion like cliffs, arches and stacks. Additionally, it outlines different coastal management techniques like riprap, seawalls, beach replenishment and managed retreat. The advantages and disadvantages of each protection strategy are provided.
GCSE Geography Coasts Revision
The document discusses various coastal processes and landforms. It describes the processes of swash and backwash that create different types of waves. It also discusses various erosional processes like hydraulic action, abrasion, and corrosion that lead to cliff recession. Coastal landforms like wave-cut platforms, headlands and bays, stacks and stumps are formed through these erosional processes. Coastal management techniques like groynes, sea walls, and beach replenishment are used to reduce coastal erosion.
Disaster management
Environmental science& Engg:
Hazard
Any phenomenon that has the potential to cause disruption or damage to people and their environment.
For example, an earthquake can cause a tsunami.
Disaster
Natural disasters are slightly different. They are the effects of natural hazards on humanity.
For example, the tsunami in Indonesia caused a great amount of loss of property and more importantly lives.
Disaster management
This document defines hazards, disasters, and different types of natural disasters such as floods, cyclones, landslides, and earthquakes. It provides details on the causes and effects of each type of natural disaster, as well as methods for managing and mitigating the risks from floods, cyclones, landslides, and earthquakes. The document distinguishes between natural disasters and man-made disasters, and provides examples of each type of hazard and resulting disaster.
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This document discusses coastal and marine processes and hazards. It describes coastal erosion, submersion, and saltwater intrusion as coastal processes that can cause hazards. Tropical cyclones are a major hydrometeorological hazard for the Philippines, with flooding, strong winds, landslides, and storm surges listed as tropical cyclone hazards. Mitigation methods for coastal hazards include engineering structures, beach nourishment, and banning mining activities. Early warning systems and emergency preparedness are recommended for coping with hazards.
Natural Disasters
The document provides information about various natural disasters including earthquakes, tornadoes, landslides, volcanoes, floods, droughts, hurricanes, famines, tsunamis, forest fires and cyclones. It defines each disaster and provides some key details and examples of significant events for some of the disasters.
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Chapter-1
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Creation of the stack
- 1. CREATION OF THE STACK
- 2. 1 – 10mya Volcanic activity created the Manukau breccia from eruptions of theWaitakere volcano. Uplift along the Muriwai Helensville fault lifted the headland out of the water.
- 3. 2 – 1mya The Prevailing SW wind created waves of average 1.5m.These waves refract around the headland and erode the headland. Weaknesses in the Manukau Breccia conglomerate become cracks due to Hydraulic action.
- 4. 300000 - 100,000 ya Due to wave erosion acting on the crack, through the sub-processes of spray splash and wetting and drying, the crack opens wider to form a cave
- 5. 1000 – 500ya The process of vegetation growth has weakened the roof of the cave and coupled with continued hydraulic action and spray splash action the cave erodes all the way through the headland to form a sea arch.
- 6. 5- 400ya A weakened arch roof due to the wave action and vegetation growth leads to the roof being too weak to support itself, the roof falls in to leave the stack (Motutara Island) standing 20m off Otakamiro Headland.
- 7. Characteristics = what the thing is like; how tall, where it is, what it’s made of.