The document discusses the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers or strata: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups of words that share a common property or "aspect". The literary layer has a bookish character, the colloquial layer has a lively spoken character, and the neutral layer has a universal character. The document also examines subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers such as common literary words, poetic words, archaic words, and slang. It analyzes the functions and interactions of words from different layers and subgroups.
Stylistic Classification of English VocabularyIrina K
The document discusses the classification and development of English vocabulary. It covers:
- Common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words, and technical words can be classified by level of usage.
- The historical development of English vocabulary from Old English, Middle English to Modern English, with influences from Latin, French, and other languages.
- After WWII, rapid growth in vocabulary was driven by advances in science/technology, socio-economic changes, and influence from other cultures and languages. New words emerged in many domains like space, computers, social movements, education and more.
This document discusses the stylistic classification of words in the English vocabulary. It is divided into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. The literary layer contains terms, poetic words, archaic words, and foreignisms. These words are stable and used in written speech. The colloquial layer contains slang, dialects, vulgarisms and unstable words used in spoken communication. Most of the English vocabulary is made up of neutral words that can be used across both literary and colloquial styles. Synonyms differ in their emotional and social connotations. Words can transition between these layers over time.
Stylistic differentiation of english vocabularyjverftukli
This document discusses stylistic differentiation in the English language with respect to vocabulary used in different functional styles. It provides examples of how the same concepts can be expressed using neutral, colloquial, formal, scientific, or slang terminology. It also discusses characteristics of the colloquial style, such as use of shortened forms, ellipses, and informal phrases. Additionally, it defines terms, professionalisms, and the process of "determinisation" where terms enter common vocabulary.
A2 English Literature & Language - Practical & Stylisticsfoxfordmsc
The document outlines the differences between stylistics and practical criticism as literary approaches. Stylistics involves analyzing the language used in a text to arrive at an objective view, looking at elements like sentence structure and grammar. Practical criticism focuses on analyzing the literary devices used in a text, viewing the work as a self-contained piece of art. Both approaches can provide useful insights but also have limitations when used alone.
This document discusses linguistic deviation and foregrounding in literature. It defines deviation as language that differs from conventions and foregrounding as making certain linguistic elements especially prominent. It describes various types of deviation including lexical, grammatical, semantic, and phonological. Specific examples are provided, such as nonce words, morphological changes, syntactic rearrangements, semantic oddities like oxymorons, and phonological alterations. The document aims to outline techniques authors use to deviate from norms and draw attention to certain parts of their writing.
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
The document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the vocabulary into three main layers or strata: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups of words that share a common property or aspect. The literary layer has a bookish character, the colloquial layer has a lively spoken character, and the neutral layer has a universal character that can be used in all styles. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
1. Literature uses techniques like defamiliarization and foregrounding to draw attention to language and arouse emotions in readers through deviations from ordinary usage.
2. Foregrounding refers to stylistic effects that make language prominent through deviations at the phonetic, semantic or other levels.
3. These deviations slow readers down and prolong reading time, allowing feelings to emerge that enrich understanding of the text.
The document discusses different categories of words in the English language:
1) Stylistically neutral words that contain only denotative meaning and are not restricted in use.
2) Stylistically colored words that express denotative and connotative meaning and are restricted to particular spheres, including literary words (e.g. bookish words, terms, archaisms) and colloquial words (e.g. slang, jargon, dialects).
3) Literary words are used formally while colloquial words are used informally in everyday communication.
Stylistic Classification of English VocabularyIrina K
The document discusses the classification and development of English vocabulary. It covers:
- Common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words, and technical words can be classified by level of usage.
- The historical development of English vocabulary from Old English, Middle English to Modern English, with influences from Latin, French, and other languages.
- After WWII, rapid growth in vocabulary was driven by advances in science/technology, socio-economic changes, and influence from other cultures and languages. New words emerged in many domains like space, computers, social movements, education and more.
This document discusses the stylistic classification of words in the English vocabulary. It is divided into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. The literary layer contains terms, poetic words, archaic words, and foreignisms. These words are stable and used in written speech. The colloquial layer contains slang, dialects, vulgarisms and unstable words used in spoken communication. Most of the English vocabulary is made up of neutral words that can be used across both literary and colloquial styles. Synonyms differ in their emotional and social connotations. Words can transition between these layers over time.
Stylistic differentiation of english vocabularyjverftukli
This document discusses stylistic differentiation in the English language with respect to vocabulary used in different functional styles. It provides examples of how the same concepts can be expressed using neutral, colloquial, formal, scientific, or slang terminology. It also discusses characteristics of the colloquial style, such as use of shortened forms, ellipses, and informal phrases. Additionally, it defines terms, professionalisms, and the process of "determinisation" where terms enter common vocabulary.
A2 English Literature & Language - Practical & Stylisticsfoxfordmsc
The document outlines the differences between stylistics and practical criticism as literary approaches. Stylistics involves analyzing the language used in a text to arrive at an objective view, looking at elements like sentence structure and grammar. Practical criticism focuses on analyzing the literary devices used in a text, viewing the work as a self-contained piece of art. Both approaches can provide useful insights but also have limitations when used alone.
This document discusses linguistic deviation and foregrounding in literature. It defines deviation as language that differs from conventions and foregrounding as making certain linguistic elements especially prominent. It describes various types of deviation including lexical, grammatical, semantic, and phonological. Specific examples are provided, such as nonce words, morphological changes, syntactic rearrangements, semantic oddities like oxymorons, and phonological alterations. The document aims to outline techniques authors use to deviate from norms and draw attention to certain parts of their writing.
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
The document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the vocabulary into three main layers or strata: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups of words that share a common property or aspect. The literary layer has a bookish character, the colloquial layer has a lively spoken character, and the neutral layer has a universal character that can be used in all styles. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
1. Literature uses techniques like defamiliarization and foregrounding to draw attention to language and arouse emotions in readers through deviations from ordinary usage.
2. Foregrounding refers to stylistic effects that make language prominent through deviations at the phonetic, semantic or other levels.
3. These deviations slow readers down and prolong reading time, allowing feelings to emerge that enrich understanding of the text.
The document discusses different categories of words in the English language:
1) Stylistically neutral words that contain only denotative meaning and are not restricted in use.
2) Stylistically colored words that express denotative and connotative meaning and are restricted to particular spheres, including literary words (e.g. bookish words, terms, archaisms) and colloquial words (e.g. slang, jargon, dialects).
3) Literary words are used formally while colloquial words are used informally in everyday communication.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples and analysis of how words from these different layers compare and interact with each other stylistically. Special attention is given to terms as a subgroup within the literary vocabulary.
This document discusses different types of poetic license or deviation from standard language conventions in poetry. It outlines 8 types of deviation: lexical, grammatical, phonological, graphological, semantic, dialectal, register, and historical period. Each type is defined and examples are provided, such as neologisms for lexical deviation and unusual spellings or lack of punctuation for graphological deviation. The purpose of these deviations is to make poetic language more creative, inventive, and impactful for readers.
Stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic perspective, examining how language choices create meaning and artistic effect. There are several branches of stylistics including lexical, grammatical, phonological, functional, individual author styles, and encoding/decoding. Key concepts include tropes like metaphor and metonymy, sound techniques like alliteration, and structural devices like irony and register elements. Stylistics aims to interpret and evaluate literary works through the lens of their expressive linguistic features.
This document provides an introduction to stylistics as a branch of linguistics. It defines key concepts such as style, defines stylistics as the scientific study of styles of language use, and outlines the main levels of linguistic description used in stylistic analysis such as phonology, lexis, syntax and semantics. It also discusses the scope of stylistics in literary versus general texts and its development over time.
what is stylistics and its levels 1.Phonological level 2.Graphological leve...RajpootBhatti5
This document discusses stylistics and its levels of analysis. It defines stylistics as the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective, focusing on literature but also other written texts. There are five main levels of stylistics analysis:
1. Phonological level - Analyzes sounds, pronunciation, rhythm, etc.
2. Graphological level - Examines handwriting, fonts, punctuation, spelling.
3. Grammatical level - Looks at parts of speech, abbreviations, verbs, and the language of newspaper headlines.
4. Pragmatics level - Studies context, meaning, presuppositions, and speech acts.
5. Conversation/discourse analysis - Analyzes
The document discusses various types of lexis (vocabulary) and their stylistic characteristics. It covers standard vs. non-standard lexis, nominal vs. verbal style, qualifying lexis such as adjectives and adverbs, grammatical lexis, and historically, professionally, and expressively marked lexis. Specifically, it defines terms like euphemisms, pejoratives, idioms, synonyms, and palindromes and provides examples of each.
Statistical features of newspaper languageRafia Sheikh
This document outlines the stylistic features of language that can be analyzed at different levels, including phonological, graphological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. It discusses analyzing sound patterns and pronunciation at the phonological level, the form and appearance of written text at the graphological level, word building and affixes at the morphological level, phrase and clause structures at the syntactic level, and meanings and contexts at the semantic level. Discourse analysis is also mentioned as the study of text language and conversations.
This document discusses various levels and types of stylistics including phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic stylistics. It provides examples and definitions of key concepts in stylistic analysis such as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, epithet, hyperbole, oxymoron, simile, euphemism, pun, ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton, repetition, parallel constructions, inversion, and rhetorical questions. The document examines how these devices are used and their communicative functions in emphasizing aspects of speech and making language more expressive.
This document discusses stylistic analysis of literary texts. It identifies four levels of stylistic analysis: phonological, grammatical, lexical, and graphological. At the phonological level, it examines sound patterns. The grammatical level analyzes sentence structure and parts of speech. Lexically, it studies word choices and semantics. Graphologically, it considers writing conventions. The document provides an example analysis of the poem "maggie and milly and molly and may" to illustrate the application of these levels and derivation of meaning through stylistic techniques. It concludes that stylistic analysis is useful for literary interpretation and for teachers to help students better understand poetry.
This document discusses stylistics and social categories that influence language variation. It defines stylistics as the study of literary styles of particular genres or writers, and examines various stylistic devices like rhetoric, romanticism, and syntax. It also explores how social factors like social class, ethnicity, age, gender, and social network can lead to differences in sociolects and language use. Examples are provided to illustrate stylistic devices and how language varies according to social categories.
The document discusses deviation and parallelism as techniques for foregrounding in literature. Deviation refers to breaking linguistic rules or conventions in a way that stands out from expectations. Parallelism creates foregrounding through unexpected regularity, using similar grammatical structures within a text. Foregrounding draws attention to the linguistic features used rather than just the content, making a text more memorable and open to interpretation. Both deviation and parallelism can achieve foregrounding on phonological, graphical, morphological, lexical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels of language.
This document provides an overview of stylistics as an academic field of study. It discusses the historical development of stylistics from the study of elocution in the early 20th century to its modern conceptualization. Stylistics is described as the linguistic study of style in texts and draws on various subfields of linguistics. The document outlines several branches of stylistics including functional, individual style study, stylistics of decoding, and literary stylistics. It also defines key concepts in stylistics including the notion of norm, stylistic function, stylistic coloring, context, and expressive and imaginative means of language.
Copy of stylistic differentiation of english vocabularyjverftukli08
This document discusses stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary according to functional styles. It notes that vocabulary can be categorized as bookish/literary, colloquial, or neutral. Colloquial vocabulary is typical of informal oral communication and contains emotionally colored words and connotations. The document provides examples to illustrate these categories and discusses features of colloquial style such as informality, broad word meanings, and use of shortened forms. It also discusses terms, professionalisms, and slang used in specific social contexts or professions.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples and analysis of how words from these different layers compare and interact with each other stylistically. Special attention is given to terms as a subgroup within the literary vocabulary.
A slideshow specially designed for non-english teachers in engineering colleges to help them improve their vocabulary and to help them learn certain vocabulary learning and teaching techniques.
Stylistics introduction, Definitions of StylisticsAngel Ortega
This document defines stylistics and discusses its branches. Stylistics is the analysis of linguistic variation in actual language use. It examines how the same content can be expressed differently and analyzes styles across texts. Stylistics considers the natural properties of language that ensure intended effects. The document also distinguishes between spoken and written language at the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels, and categorizes words as common, formal, technical, and slang.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It analyzes the common literary, common colloquial, and neutral vocabularies, and how they overlap and relate. Special focus is given to terms as a type of specialized literary vocabulary used in scientific works.
This document discusses functional styles in English, including informal, formal, and neutral styles. It defines each style and provides examples. The informal style uses colloquial, slang, and dialect words in everyday communication. The formal style uses learned, archaic, poetic, and professional words for prepared speeches. The neutral or basic vocabulary is used across situations and lacks connotations.
Colloquial & Literary types of communiationlizibobo
The document discusses different types and layers of communication in the English language. It describes:
1) The literary layer which includes different functional styles used in written communication like scientific, official, and belles-lettres.
2) The colloquial layer which is everyday spoken communication and includes styles like slang, dialect, jargon, and vulgarisms.
3) Specific vocabulary types associated with these layers and styles, including terms, poetic words, archaic words, barbarisms, foreign words, and bookish words.
Word is the basic unit of language that has meaning. There are two levels to studying word meaning: syntagmatic looks at relationships between words, and paradigmatic compares words. Most English words have multiple meanings. Analyzing polysemantic words involves looking at the system of meanings and semantic components within each meaning. Semantic components include denotative, the core concept, and connotative, associated meanings. Context is important to determine which meaning is intended when a word has multiple meanings. Studying how words combine in typical contexts, or collocations, provides insight into semantic structure. The same meaning can be conveyed through different word combinations.
The document discusses the concept of neologisms, which are newly coined words, phrases, or usages in a language. It provides various definitions and perspectives on neologisms from different scholars. Key points include:
- Neologisms can be loan words, newly coined terms, or existing words with new meanings.
- They have to become generally known through usage before being considered fully established in the language.
- Neologisms go through a process of cultural acceptance and may be objected to before becoming standardized.
This document discusses different functional styles of language. It begins by defining functional style as a system of interrelated language means that serves a specific communicative purpose. The document then outlines some of the main functional styles according to a common classification system: scientific prose style, the style of official documents, publicistic style, newspaper style, and belles-lettres style. For each style, it provides examples and discusses typical linguistic features. For instance, it notes that the scientific prose style uses objective, precise language and employs terms, quotations and references. The style of official documents features terminology, special forms of address and encoding. Newspaper style relies on abbreviations, cliches and neologisms. Overall, the document analyzes
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples and analysis of how words from these different layers compare and interact with each other stylistically. Special attention is given to terms as a subgroup within the literary vocabulary.
This document discusses different types of poetic license or deviation from standard language conventions in poetry. It outlines 8 types of deviation: lexical, grammatical, phonological, graphological, semantic, dialectal, register, and historical period. Each type is defined and examples are provided, such as neologisms for lexical deviation and unusual spellings or lack of punctuation for graphological deviation. The purpose of these deviations is to make poetic language more creative, inventive, and impactful for readers.
Stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic perspective, examining how language choices create meaning and artistic effect. There are several branches of stylistics including lexical, grammatical, phonological, functional, individual author styles, and encoding/decoding. Key concepts include tropes like metaphor and metonymy, sound techniques like alliteration, and structural devices like irony and register elements. Stylistics aims to interpret and evaluate literary works through the lens of their expressive linguistic features.
This document provides an introduction to stylistics as a branch of linguistics. It defines key concepts such as style, defines stylistics as the scientific study of styles of language use, and outlines the main levels of linguistic description used in stylistic analysis such as phonology, lexis, syntax and semantics. It also discusses the scope of stylistics in literary versus general texts and its development over time.
what is stylistics and its levels 1.Phonological level 2.Graphological leve...RajpootBhatti5
This document discusses stylistics and its levels of analysis. It defines stylistics as the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective, focusing on literature but also other written texts. There are five main levels of stylistics analysis:
1. Phonological level - Analyzes sounds, pronunciation, rhythm, etc.
2. Graphological level - Examines handwriting, fonts, punctuation, spelling.
3. Grammatical level - Looks at parts of speech, abbreviations, verbs, and the language of newspaper headlines.
4. Pragmatics level - Studies context, meaning, presuppositions, and speech acts.
5. Conversation/discourse analysis - Analyzes
The document discusses various types of lexis (vocabulary) and their stylistic characteristics. It covers standard vs. non-standard lexis, nominal vs. verbal style, qualifying lexis such as adjectives and adverbs, grammatical lexis, and historically, professionally, and expressively marked lexis. Specifically, it defines terms like euphemisms, pejoratives, idioms, synonyms, and palindromes and provides examples of each.
Statistical features of newspaper languageRafia Sheikh
This document outlines the stylistic features of language that can be analyzed at different levels, including phonological, graphological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic levels. It discusses analyzing sound patterns and pronunciation at the phonological level, the form and appearance of written text at the graphological level, word building and affixes at the morphological level, phrase and clause structures at the syntactic level, and meanings and contexts at the semantic level. Discourse analysis is also mentioned as the study of text language and conversations.
This document discusses various levels and types of stylistics including phonetic, morphological, lexical, and syntactic stylistics. It provides examples and definitions of key concepts in stylistic analysis such as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, epithet, hyperbole, oxymoron, simile, euphemism, pun, ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton, repetition, parallel constructions, inversion, and rhetorical questions. The document examines how these devices are used and their communicative functions in emphasizing aspects of speech and making language more expressive.
This document discusses stylistic analysis of literary texts. It identifies four levels of stylistic analysis: phonological, grammatical, lexical, and graphological. At the phonological level, it examines sound patterns. The grammatical level analyzes sentence structure and parts of speech. Lexically, it studies word choices and semantics. Graphologically, it considers writing conventions. The document provides an example analysis of the poem "maggie and milly and molly and may" to illustrate the application of these levels and derivation of meaning through stylistic techniques. It concludes that stylistic analysis is useful for literary interpretation and for teachers to help students better understand poetry.
This document discusses stylistics and social categories that influence language variation. It defines stylistics as the study of literary styles of particular genres or writers, and examines various stylistic devices like rhetoric, romanticism, and syntax. It also explores how social factors like social class, ethnicity, age, gender, and social network can lead to differences in sociolects and language use. Examples are provided to illustrate stylistic devices and how language varies according to social categories.
The document discusses deviation and parallelism as techniques for foregrounding in literature. Deviation refers to breaking linguistic rules or conventions in a way that stands out from expectations. Parallelism creates foregrounding through unexpected regularity, using similar grammatical structures within a text. Foregrounding draws attention to the linguistic features used rather than just the content, making a text more memorable and open to interpretation. Both deviation and parallelism can achieve foregrounding on phonological, graphical, morphological, lexical, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels of language.
This document provides an overview of stylistics as an academic field of study. It discusses the historical development of stylistics from the study of elocution in the early 20th century to its modern conceptualization. Stylistics is described as the linguistic study of style in texts and draws on various subfields of linguistics. The document outlines several branches of stylistics including functional, individual style study, stylistics of decoding, and literary stylistics. It also defines key concepts in stylistics including the notion of norm, stylistic function, stylistic coloring, context, and expressive and imaginative means of language.
Copy of stylistic differentiation of english vocabularyjverftukli08
This document discusses stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary according to functional styles. It notes that vocabulary can be categorized as bookish/literary, colloquial, or neutral. Colloquial vocabulary is typical of informal oral communication and contains emotionally colored words and connotations. The document provides examples to illustrate these categories and discusses features of colloquial style such as informality, broad word meanings, and use of shortened forms. It also discusses terms, professionalisms, and slang used in specific social contexts or professions.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples and analysis of how words from these different layers compare and interact with each other stylistically. Special attention is given to terms as a subgroup within the literary vocabulary.
A slideshow specially designed for non-english teachers in engineering colleges to help them improve their vocabulary and to help them learn certain vocabulary learning and teaching techniques.
Stylistics introduction, Definitions of StylisticsAngel Ortega
This document defines stylistics and discusses its branches. Stylistics is the analysis of linguistic variation in actual language use. It examines how the same content can be expressed differently and analyzes styles across texts. Stylistics considers the natural properties of language that ensure intended effects. The document also distinguishes between spoken and written language at the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels, and categorizes words as common, formal, technical, and slang.
«Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It analyzes the common literary, common colloquial, and neutral vocabularies, and how they overlap and relate. Special focus is given to terms as a type of specialized literary vocabulary used in scientific works.
This document discusses functional styles in English, including informal, formal, and neutral styles. It defines each style and provides examples. The informal style uses colloquial, slang, and dialect words in everyday communication. The formal style uses learned, archaic, poetic, and professional words for prepared speeches. The neutral or basic vocabulary is used across situations and lacks connotations.
Colloquial & Literary types of communiationlizibobo
The document discusses different types and layers of communication in the English language. It describes:
1) The literary layer which includes different functional styles used in written communication like scientific, official, and belles-lettres.
2) The colloquial layer which is everyday spoken communication and includes styles like slang, dialect, jargon, and vulgarisms.
3) Specific vocabulary types associated with these layers and styles, including terms, poetic words, archaic words, barbarisms, foreign words, and bookish words.
Word is the basic unit of language that has meaning. There are two levels to studying word meaning: syntagmatic looks at relationships between words, and paradigmatic compares words. Most English words have multiple meanings. Analyzing polysemantic words involves looking at the system of meanings and semantic components within each meaning. Semantic components include denotative, the core concept, and connotative, associated meanings. Context is important to determine which meaning is intended when a word has multiple meanings. Studying how words combine in typical contexts, or collocations, provides insight into semantic structure. The same meaning can be conveyed through different word combinations.
The document discusses the concept of neologisms, which are newly coined words, phrases, or usages in a language. It provides various definitions and perspectives on neologisms from different scholars. Key points include:
- Neologisms can be loan words, newly coined terms, or existing words with new meanings.
- They have to become generally known through usage before being considered fully established in the language.
- Neologisms go through a process of cultural acceptance and may be objected to before becoming standardized.
This document discusses different functional styles of language. It begins by defining functional style as a system of interrelated language means that serves a specific communicative purpose. The document then outlines some of the main functional styles according to a common classification system: scientific prose style, the style of official documents, publicistic style, newspaper style, and belles-lettres style. For each style, it provides examples and discusses typical linguistic features. For instance, it notes that the scientific prose style uses objective, precise language and employs terms, quotations and references. The style of official documents features terminology, special forms of address and encoding. Newspaper style relies on abbreviations, cliches and neologisms. Overall, the document analyzes
The document discusses slang and its role in language. It notes that slang makes speech more emotionally expressive and concise. While teenagers often use slang the most, slang is present across many age groups and professions. The document advocates teaching some types of slang to students to help develop communication skills, though too much slang should be avoided. Slang is an integral part of language that helps groups identify with each other and communicate efficiently.
Slang is informal language that originates from subcultures and groups outside the mainstream. It is characterized as being colloquial, imaginative, and variable over time and between regions. Slang is used to play with language creatively and to identify with social groups. It comes from sources like occupational groups, teenagers, media like movies and music. Examples are given like "pot" originating from drug culture and "c-note" from criminal slang. Slang allows users to be different, secretive, and exclude others outside their group.
Lexical stylistic devices and expressive means -with examplesAngel Ortega
This powerpoint shows lexical stylistic devices as explained by IR.R. Galperin. some exmaple are taken form the net the others were created by the author of this powerpoint..
This poem describes a dialogue between two people who have died, one for beauty and one for truth. They find themselves buried in adjoining rooms and have a conversation through the wall between their tombs. They realize that beauty and truth are ultimately one and the same. As moss grows over their lips, their names are covered and they can no longer speak.
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Copy of sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Copy of sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli
This document summarizes the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups that share a common property called an "aspect." The literary layer's aspect is its bookish character, the colloquial layer's aspect is its lively spoken character, and the neutral layer's aspect is its universal character. The document further breaks down the subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers, such as terms, poetic words, archaic words, slang, etc. and discusses their stylistic functions and usage.
Copy of «stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli08
The document discusses the classification of English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial. It examines the subgroups within the literary layer, including terms and learned words, as well as the subgroups in the colloquial layer such as slang, dialects, and vulgar words. The purpose is to analyze how words are differentiated stylistically and the practical importance of understanding these classifications for students, teachers, and translators.
Copy of «stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples to illustrate differences between neutral, common literary, and common colloquial words. Finally, it discusses special groups within the literary vocabulary, including terms used in specific disciplines.
Copy of «stylistic classification of the english vocabulary»jverftukli
This document provides an introduction and overview of the topic of stylistic classification of the English vocabulary. It begins by establishing that the same proposition can be expressed in different ways depending on the communicative situation. It then outlines the aims of the work, which are to learn about the peculiarities of stylistic differentiation in English vocabulary and to examine different scholars' approaches. The document presents a classification system that divides the English vocabulary into three main layers - literary, neutral, and colloquial - with various subgroups within each layer. It provides examples to illustrate the differences between these layers and subgroups. Finally, it discusses some special groups within the literary vocabulary, particularly terms used in scientific works.
This document discusses different categories of literary words that can be divided into general literary words and special literary words. General literary words are also called high-flown words and are used to create an elevated or official tone. Special literary words are further divided into five groups: neologisms, archaisms, terms, barbarisms, and poetic words. Neologisms are new words for new concepts. Archaisms are obsolete words or words related to historical concepts. Terms are used for scientific or technical fields. Barbarisms are words borrowed from other languages. Poetic words are archaic words preserved for special uses in poetry.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It examines how meaning is derived from words and sentences, including aspects like reference, sense, lexical relations between words, and conceptual relations. Semantic analysis considers how meaning is constructed through categorization, prototypes, and metaphor. Semantics aims to understand how language represents human conceptualization and cognition.
This document discusses semantics and linguistic analysis. It explains that semantics is the study of meaning in language. There are different levels of linguistic analysis, including phonology (sounds), syntax (word combinations), and semantics (meaning of words and sentences). Semantics examines how words, phrases, and sentences combine in ways that are acceptable to language users. It also discusses topics like denotation (core meaning), connotation (personal associations), idioms, tone, style, and diction (word choice).
This document discusses fixed expressions in English. It notes there is no agreed upon terminology and definitions can vary. Idioms are defined as multi-word phrases whose meanings are not fully predictable from the individual words. Idioms typically have both a literal compositional meaning and a non-compositional idiomatic meaning. Fixed expressions include idioms and other phrases like proverbs and collocations that vary in their degree of compositionality. Institutionalization, fixedness, and non-compositionality are identified as the main factors in defining fixed expressions, though there is variability. Other criteria mentioned include orthography, syntactic integrity, and phonological properties. Examples of common English idioms and fixed expressions are provided.
The document provides an introduction to morphology and discusses several key concepts:
[1] Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It examines the relationship between phonology, syntax, semantics, and other linguistic domains.
[2] A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning or function. Words can consist of single or multiple morphemes. Morphemes can be free or bound, lexical or functional, derivational or inflectional.
[3] Defining the word is complex as words can vary in spelling, phonology, syntax, and semantics. Words exist on a continuum with phrases and compound formations. Context and meaning play a role in distinguishing homophones and related
The document discusses various aspects of word choice and meaning, including dictionaries, thesauruses, word roots and parts of speech. It also covers idioms, phrasal verbs, slang, regionalisms, jargon, figurative language, and cliches. The purpose is to explain how to understand words and choose them effectively.
The document discusses various aspects of word choice and meaning, including dictionaries, thesauruses, word roots and parts of speech. It also covers idioms, phrasal verbs, slang, regionalisms, jargon, figurative language, and cliches. The purpose is to explain how to understand words and choose them effectively.
1) The document discusses several key properties of human language including arbitrariness, duality, productivity, cultural transmission, and displacement.
2) It defines these properties and explains how they are uniquely present in human language compared to animal communication systems. For example, duality refers to language having two levels of structure - meaningless sounds that combine to form meaningful units.
3) Several properties are described as "significant" because they are uniquely part of human language, like displacement which allows referring to things removed from the present context. This highlights what makes human language distinct from communication in other species.
This document provides an introduction to semantics, the study of meaning in language. It defines semantics as studying the meaning of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences. Meaning arises from the systematic link between linguistic forms and things in the world. It also discusses different aspects of meaning, including reference versus sense, denotation versus sense, and literal versus non-literal meaning. Sense is how the speaker thinks about an object, while reference is the actual object being referred to.
This document provides information about a student named Kevin Fernando Yépez Huertas who is in the 5th class of French at the Universidad Central del Ecuador, Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Education Sciences, School of Languages. It discusses several key branches of linguistics including sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, anthropological linguistics, and applied linguistics. It also contrasts comparative linguistics with contrastive linguistics and discusses fundamental teaching in contrastive linguistics.
This document discusses the challenges of translating prose works from one language to another. It begins by defining literary translation and prose translation. Some of the key challenges mentioned include maintaining an author's style while translating, dealing with unique character names and places, translating dialogues which are structured differently across languages, and maintaining semantic prosody of words. Additional difficulties come from translating cultural nuances, feelings and delicate elements of a work. The translator must have a strong understanding of both the source and target languages to perform this high art of literary translation.
"In general, usage labels provide specific information about the domain of application of the definition. In the more abstract sense ..., a usage label is to be taken as a higher-level instruction, as a meta-linguistic device. This means that it cannot be equated with a definition itself: it restricts the definition to a certain context. The definition of a word given by a dictionary entry is intended for a group of users belonging to those who speak or want to speak the standard form of the language of the dictionary in question.
The document discusses reference and meaning in language. It defines reference as the relationship between linguistic expressions and real world entities. Reference can be referring, where expressions pick out entities, or non-referring. Referring expressions include nouns and names, while non-referring includes words like "very" and "maybe". Reference can also be constant, where an expression always refers to the same entity, or variable, where context determines the referent. Meaning in language can be viewed through either a referential approach, where meaning comes from relating expressions to reality, or a representational approach, where meaning comes from reflecting conceptual structures.
This document outlines different levels of stylistic analysis for examining written works, including graphology, phonology, grammar, lexical analysis, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse analysis. It provides examples of features analyzed at each level, such as rhyme schemes, punctuation, parts of speech, inferences, and repetitions. The document also discusses word frequency analysis and lists common literary devices and techniques.
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This document provides an introduction and guidelines for a reader-friendly edition of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales that has been put into modern English spelling. It explains that the spelling has been updated for readability while keeping the original language, grammar, syntax and vocabulary. Some discussion is provided around pronunciation, rhyme, and meter in Chaucer's works compared to modern English. The editor aims to make Chaucer accessible to general readers without requiring knowledge of Middle English.
Stylistic classification of english vocabulary presentation transcriptjverftukli08
The document discusses the stylistic classification of English vocabulary. It describes how words can be classified based on their level of usage as common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words, and technical words. Examples are provided for each classification. The document also discusses how words can be divided into formal, common, and colloquial levels from a stylistic perspective. Guidelines for choosing words appropriately for different contexts are also outlined.
Sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabularyjverftukli08
The document discusses the stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. It divides the English word-stock into three main layers or strata: the literary layer, neutral layer, and colloquial layer. Each layer contains subgroups of words that share a common property or "aspect". The literary layer has a bookish character, the colloquial layer has a lively spoken character, and the neutral layer has a universal character. The document also examines subgroups within the literary and colloquial layers such as common literary words, poetic words, archaic words, and slang. It analyzes the functions and interactions of words from different layers and subgroups.
- Languages have both common words and technical words that are coined as new developments occur in science.
- English has one of the longest non-technical words at 28 letters, and words can be made longer through prefixes, suffixes, and combining words.
- Technical terms in languages can be extremely long, especially in fields like chemistry, to describe new discoveries.
- Other languages also have long words through combining elements, like German and some Native American languages where whole phrases can be expressed as a single word.
- One Native American chief held the record for the longest known word with his 179 letter name.
Multiple intelligences theory proposes that intelligence is composed of several distinct abilities rather than a single general ability. The theory identifies eight types of intelligence: logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Each person possesses combinations of these intelligences in different levels that help determine their strengths and weaknesses. The theory challenges the traditional view that intelligence is a single general ability that can be accurately measured by standard intelligence tests.
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The document provides various memory and study aids for improving vocabulary, including visual clues like drawings, pictures, diagrams and charts. It recommends creating flashcards with words on one side and definitions or sample sentences on the other. The document also suggests paying attention to grammar, pronunciation, spelling, and sentence patterns of new words. It provides tips for effective vocabulary study, such as studying in short bursts throughout the day and using interactive methods like creating sentences and quizzing a study partner.
Beowulf, a Geatish warrior known for his immense strength, hears of the troubles plaguing the kingdom of Denmark from the monster Grendel. Grendel has been attacking the royal hall at night and killing the king's men. Beowulf vows to defeat Grendel with his bare hands. He travels to Denmark with a group of warriors. That night, while the others sleep under Grendel's spell, Beowulf engages Grendel in a fierce battle throughout the hall. After a violent struggle, Beowulf is able to tear off Grendel's arm, causing the monster to flee wounded back into the misty night.
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The document outlines Pierre H. Matisse's view of the four key elements that make up a masterpiece in creative art:
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This document provides an introduction and guidelines for a reader-friendly edition of Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales that has been put into modern English spelling. It explains that the spelling has been updated for readability while keeping the original language, grammar, syntax and vocabulary. Some discussion is provided around pronunciation, rhyme, and meter in Chaucer's works compared to modern English. The editor aims to make Chaucer accessible to general readers without requiring knowledge of Middle English.
Copy of stylistic classification of english vocabulary presentation transcriptjverftukli08
The document discusses the stylistic classification of English vocabulary. It describes how words can be classified based on their level of usage as common words, literary words, colloquial words, slang words, and technical words. Examples are provided for each classification. Additionally, it discusses how words can be divided into formal, common, and colloquial levels from a stylistic perspective. Guidelines for choosing words appropriately for different contexts are also outlined.
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English vocabulary has roots in many languages. The core vocabulary comes from Old English (Anglo-Saxon) spoken in England after the 5th century AD. Additional words entered from Old Norse (Viking invasions), Norman French (1066 conquest), and other languages during the British Empire. Modern English continues to borrow words freely from languages around the world, giving it one of the largest vocabularies of any language.
The poem begins with the genealogy of the Danish kings, including Hrothgar who builds the great hall Heorot. The monster Grendel attacks Heorot, killing Danish warriors. Beowulf, a great Geatish warrior, hears of Grendel's attacks and goes to help the Danes. That night in Heorot, Beowulf waits and defeats Grendel in a battle. Later, Grendel's mother attacks in revenge and takes a man. Beowulf dives into a lake, battles Grendel's mother, and defeats her. Beowulf is praised for his heroic acts and returns home to Geatland where he later becomes king. In his fiftieth year as king
The document discusses the reduction of categorical syllogisms, which is the process of expressing syllogisms that are validly expressed in figures other than the first figure into equivalent syllogisms in the first figure. It explains the key consonants - S, P, M, and C - that indicate the logical operations needed to perform this reduction, such as simple conversion, accidental conversion, mutation, or taking the contradictory of a proposition. Examples are provided to illustrate how syllogisms from figures 2 through 4 can be reduced to equivalent syllogisms in the first figure through these operations.
Copy of sdev stylistic differentiation of the english vocabulary
1. Stylistic Differentiation of the English Vocabulary
The word-stock of any language may be presented as a system, the elements of which are
interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. Then the word-stock of the English language
may be divided into three main layers (strata): the literary layer (stratum), the neutral layer, and
the colloquial layer. The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups. Each
subgroup has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property
which unites the different groups within the layer is called its aspect.
The aspect of the literary layer is its bookish character, which makes the layer more or less
stable.
The aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character, which makes it unstable,
fleeting.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. It can be employed in all styles of
language and in all spheres of human activity. This makes the layer the most stable of all.
The classification given by I.R.Galperin reflects to a great extent the mobility of the lexical
system so characteristic of the English language at its present stage of development.
The vocabulary has been divided here into two basic groups: standard and non-standard
vocabulary. The diagram on p.2 demonstrates the aforementioned layers and their subgroups.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
1. common literary;
2. terms and learned [′ lə:nid] words;
3. poetic words;
4. archaic words;
5. barbarisms and foreign words;
6. literary coinages and nonce-words.
The colloquial vocabulary includes the following groups of words:
1. common colloquial words;
2. slang;
3. jargonisms;
4. professionalisms;
5. dialectal words;
6. vulgar words;
7. colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term
Standard English Vocabulary.
Other groups in the literary and colloquial layers are called special literary (bookish)
vocabulary and special (non-standard) colloquial vocabulary.
Neutral words
Neutral words form the bulk of the English Vocabulary and are used in both literary and
colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. Unlike all
other groups, neutral words don’t have a special stylistic colouring and are devoid of emotional
meaning.
Common standard literary words
Common standard literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. They
are used in formal communication. Literary words are mainly observed in the written form. One
can always tell a literary word from a colloquial word, because literary words are used to satisfy
2. communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while colloquial words are
employed in non-official everyday communication.
Poetic
words
Author’s
coinages
(nonce-
words)
Archaic
and
historical
words Special literary-bookish
vocabulary
Barbarisms
Terms and
Common foreignisms
standard-literary vocabulary
Common Col..voc.
Neutral Words
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Common English voc. ююююю
ююю
Common standard-colloquial
vocabulary
ээ
Nonce-
Professiona-
lisms
words
Special colloquial
рр
(non-standard)
vocabulary
Slang
Vulgarisms
Dialectal Jargonisms
words
Literary words stand in opposition to colloquial words forming pairs of synonyms which
are based on contrasting relations.
Colloquial Neutral Literary
kid child infant
daddy father parent
get out go away retire
go on continue proceed
2
3. Common standard colloquial words
Common colloquial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones. They
are used in informal communication.
Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of
literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a tendency to pass into that layer. The upper
range of the colloquial layer can easily pass into the neutral layer too. The lines of demarcation
between common colloquial and neutral and common literary and neutral are blurred. Here we
may see the process of interpenetration of the stylistic layers. The stylistic function of the
different layers of the English Vocabulary depends in many respects on their interaction when
they are opposed to one another. It is interesting to note that anything written assumes a greater
degree of significance than what is only spoken. If the spoken takes the place of the written or
vice versa, it means that we are faced with a stylistic device.
Special literary-bookish vocabulary
1. Terms and learned words.
These are words denoting scientific concepts or objects, processes, phenomena of science,
humanities, technique.
One of the most characteristic features of a term is its direct relevance to the system of
terms used in a particular science, discipline or art.
e.g. power
transmission
circumference
Terms are mostly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch, therefore
it may be said that they belong to the style of the language of science. But their usage is not
confined to this style. They may appear in other styles, but their function in this case changes:
they do not refer to a given concept. In other styles a term may acquire a stylistic function to
create the environment, the true-to-life atmosphere of the narration, or to make some reference to
the occupation of the character thus creating a particular professional background. A term may
be used with a parodying function contributing to a humorous effect.
So when used in the belles-lettres style, a term may become a stylistic device. This happens
when a term is used in such a way that two meanings are materialized simultaneously.
2. Poetic and highly literary words.
Poetic and highly literary words belong to special literary vocabulary. They are mostly
archaic and aim at producing an elevated effect or giving the work of are a lofty poetic
colouring.
Poetic tradition has kept alive such archaic words and forms as follows:
poetic neutral
woe sorrow
quouth speak
harken hear
speaketh speaks
cometh comes
brethren brothers
wilt 2-nd person singular
Poetic words are not freely built. Very often they are built by compounding:
e.g. young-eyed, rosy-fingered.
3
4. In the following poem by L. Hughes we may see the examples of poetic style not only in
the choice of word, but also in the compound word.
Langston Hughes
Dreams
Hold fast to dreams
For if dreams die
Life is a broken-winged bird
That cannot fly.
Hold fast to dreams
For when dreams go
Life is a barren field
Frozen with snow.
Poetic words are said to evoke emotive meanings. They colour the utterance with a certain
air of loftiness. But very often they become too hackneyed, too stale for this purpose.
Poetic words in an ordinary environment may also have a satirical function.
3. Archaic words (obsolescent and obsolete words).
The word-stock of any language is in the state of constant change. Words change their
meaning and sometimes drop out of the language altogether.
We shall distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words.
The first stage means the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely
used. Such words are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use, and are called
obsolescent [,Cbsə′lesənt] (выходящий из употребления, устаревающий). These are
morphological forms belonging to the earlier stages in the development of the language. They
are quite easily recognized by the English language community.
e.g. thou (ты)
thee (тебя, тебе, тобой)
thy (твой)
-est – thou makest
-(e)th – he maketh, speaketh
wilt – will
Obsolescent words are widely used in poetry as in the following poem by G.G.Byron.
G.G. Byron
And wilt thou weep when I am low?
And wilt thou weep when I am low?
Sweet lady! Speak those words again:
Yet if they grieve thee, say not so –
I would not give that bosom pain.
My heart is sad, my hopes are gone,
My blood runs coldly through my breast;
And when I perish, thou alone
Wilt sigh above my place of rest.
The second stage of the aging process. Here are included those words that have already
gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. They are
called obsolete [′Cbsəli:t] (вышедший из употребления, устаревший).
e.g. methinks it seems to me
nay no
whereof of which
The third stage indicates the words which are no longer recognized in Modern English.
They are called archaic proper.
4
5. e.g. troth (faith)
a losel (a lazy fellow)
befall (happen)
There are also historical words denoting concepts and phenomena that are out of use in
modern times. They never disappear from the language and have no synonyms, while archaic
words have been replaced by modern synonyms.
e.g. knight
yeoman
spear
goblet
Historical words are primarily used in the creation of a realistic background of historical
novels.
One of the main functions of archaisms is purely poetic function, when they are used to
create an elevated effect, or to suit a solemn occasion.
It should be mentioned that archaic words are frequently found in the style of official
documents.
e.g. aforesaid (aforenamed)
hereby
hereinafter
henceforth
Their function here is terminological in character. They help to maintain the exactness of
expression so necessary in this style.
When archaic words are used in a depiction of events of present-day life, they assume the
function of a stylistic device. They may be used for satirical purposes. So, archaisms occurring in
inappropriate surroundings are intentionally used by the writer to cause a humorous effect.
4. Barbarisms and foreignisms.
Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the
English language. They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the
native tongue.
Most of them have corresponding English synonyms.
e.g. chic (stylish)
bon mot (a clever witty saying)
tête-a tête (face to face)
Barbarisms have already become facts of the English language: they are given in
dictionaries.
Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary, they are not registered in
dictionaries. They are generally italicized to indicate their foreign nature or their stylistic value.
Very often foreign words fulfill a terminological function. They have no synonyms.
e.g. Duma
Kandidat
blitzkrieg
perestroika
taiga
Both barbarisms and foreign words are used in various styles with various aims. One of
their functions is to supply local colour, that is to depict local conditions of life, customs and
habits, concrete facts and events and other specific cultural peculiarities.
Barbarisms and foreign words very often convey the idea of the foreign origin or cultural
and educational status of the personage.
5. Literary coinages and nonce words.
This material was given to you in detail at the lecture.
5
6. Political Correctness
Negro > coloured > black > African American/Afro-American [негр > цветной > черный
> африканский американец/афроамериканец];
Red Indians > Native Americans [краснокожие индейцы > коренные жители]
Eskimo - Native Alaskan
spokesman [делегат] > spokesperson;
cameraman [оператор] > camera operator;
foreman [начальник] > supervisor;
fireman [пожарник] > fire fighter;
postman [почтальон] > mail carrier;
businessman [бизнесмен] > executive [исполнительный директор] или параллельно —
business woman;
stuardess [стюардесса] > flight attendant;
chairman [председатель] > chairperson;
headmistress [директриса] > headteacher
invalid > handicapped > disabled > differently-abled > physically challenged [инвалид > с
физическими/умственными недостатками > покалеченный > с иными возможностями >
человек, преодолевающий трудности из-за своего физического состояния];
retarded children > children with learning difficulties [умственно отсталые дети > дети,
испытывающие трудности при обучении];
old age pensioners > senior citizens [пожилые пенсионеры > старшие граждане];
poor > disadvantaged > economically disadvantaged [бедные > лишенные возможностей
(преимуществ) > экономически ущемленные];
unemployed > unwaged [безработные > не получающие зарплаты];
slums > substandard housing [трущобы > жилье, не отвечающее стандартам];
bin man > refuse collectors [человек, роющийся в помойках > собиратель вещей, от
которых отказались];
natives > indigenious population [местное население > исконное население];
foreigners > aliens, newcomers [иностранцы > незнакомцы; приезжие, нездешние];
foreign languages > modern languages [иностранные языки > современные языки];
short people > vertically challenged people [люди низкого роста > люди,
преодолевающие трудности из-за своих вертикальных пропорций];
fat people > horizontally challenged people [полные люди > люди, преодолевающие
трудности из-за своих горизонтальных пропорций]; third world countries > emerging nations
[страны третьего мира > возникающие нации];
collateral damage > civilians killed accidentally by military action [сопутствующие
потери > гражданские лица, случайно убитые во время военных действий];
killing the enemy > servicing the target [уничтожение врага > попадание в цель]
pets [домашние животные], предполагающее человека как хозяина или владельца,
заменяется словосочетанием animal companions [компаньоны-животные],
house plants > botanical companions [домашние растения > компаньоны-растения],
предметы неодушевленного мира — mineral companions [компаньоны-минералы].
the poor - the socially deprived социально обездоленные, the underprivileged
малопривилегированные, the disadvantages попавшие в менее благоприятные
обстоятельства, low-income people
cripple - differently abled, physically different или handicapable
fat - big-boned, differently sized,
bald - hair-disadvantaged,
deaf глухой –aurally inconvenienced,
blind слепой – unseeing.
6
7. Умственно отсталых людей называют learning disabled, special, mentally challenged
people.
insane asylum (больница для душевнобольных) - mental hospital
смерть пациента в больнице - terminal episode, therapeutic misadventure, negative
patient care outcome
парикмахер - hairstylist или beautician
garbage collector (сборщик мусора) - sanitation engineer,
эвфемизм environmental hygienist – не что иное, как название дворника (a janitor).
capitalism - the system of free enterprising система свободного предпринимательства,
open society открытое общество, economic humanism экономический гуманизм.
prison - correctional facilities
prison guards (тюремные надзиратели) - correctional officers или custodial officers
(офицеры охраны).
Заключенные - clients of correctional system (клиенты системы исправительных
учреждений), guests гости или people enjoying temporarily hospitality from the state люди,
пользующиеся временным гостеприимством у государства.
Общую классификацию эвфемизмов по тематическим группам можно представить в
виде таблицы:
Тематическая группа эвфемизмов Примеры
I. Эвфемизмы, смягчающие различные
виды дискриминации
1) возрастную дискриминацию middlescence, third age, senior, mature
2) имущественную дискриминацию economically exploited, low-income,
differently advantaged
3) дискриминацию лиц с физическими physically challenged, handicapable,
или умственными недостатками learning disable, special
4) расовую и этническую person of color, member of African
дискриминацию diaspora, indigenous person
II. Эвфемизмы, уменьшающие moonchild, hospice, room of
суеверный страх перед какими-либо reconciliation, therapeutic misadventure
явлениями
III. Эвфемизмы, повышающие престиж hairstylist, funeral director, sanitation
отдельной профессии engineer, environmental hygienist
IV. Эвфемизмы, отвлекающие от
негативных явлений действительности
1) служащие прикрытием агрессивных involvement, device, air support,
военных действий pacification, body-count
2) смягчающие негативные period of economic adjustment,
последствия в социально-экономической downsizing, negative cash flow
сфере
3) связанные с преступностью correctional facilities, custodial officer,
client, guest
7