This document summarizes a paper that was submitted to the 1st Annual Conference on Complexity and Human Experience in 2012. The paper uses Talcott Parsons' model of societal structure to analyze the underlying causes of the recent recession in the US. It argues that flaws in the differentiation of the economy, polity, community, and culture in American society generated vulnerability to economic crises. It also discusses how proposals from the Occupy Wall Street movement aim to address some of these structural flaws through political change.
This document discusses three themes related to geographical research: 1) The complex nature of geographical systems in terms of structural and developmental complexity. 2) Methodological plurality in geographical research due to this complexity. A variety of quantitative and qualitative methods are needed. 3) Different concepts of uncertainty and risk that arise from the complexity and stochastic nature of geographical systems, particularly societal systems. The document advocates for a systemic approach that considers hierarchies and interactions across scales to help understand these complex systems.
Thorstein Veblen is considered the founder of institutionalism. He developed a critique of orthodox economic theory and argued that human behavior is governed by instincts and habits formed by institutions, which are socially shared mental patterns. In his 1899 book The Theory of the Leisure Class, Veblen analyzed conspicuous consumption as a display of status rather than satisfying real needs. New institutionalism in the 1980s revived a focus on institutions across various disciplines like economics and political science. It views institutions as lenses for understanding these fields and reacted against approaches that neglected historical and social contexts. Traditional institutionalism deals with enduring social structures and the processes through which norms and rules become established guidelines for behavior over time.
The document compares the views of the New Right and postmodernists on the modern family. The New Right sees the nuclear family as ideal and believes that welfare programs have undermined family values, while postmodernists see diverse family forms as positive and view family structures as flexible over an individual's lifetime. Both perspectives offer insights into contemporary family structures but differ in their evaluations of non-traditional family forms.
This document discusses process theories of social movements and recognition struggles. It summarizes the key perspectives of several theorists on collective identities and social movements, including Melucci, Snow and Benford, Gamson, and della Porta and Diani. The theorists view collective identities as central to social movements and examine how identities are framed, constructed, negotiated, and incorporated into movements through processes like boundary formation. The document suggests current theory has not fully addressed how movements incorporate pre-existing identities into collective action.
Rationalism is no more useful than constructivism in explaining EU policy processes. Rationalism views preferences as fixed but constructivism argues they are socially constructed through institutions. Constructivism posits that social learning shapes identities and interests as actors interact in new institutional environments. This helps address rationalism's failure to explain changing outcomes when institutions change. Examples of high and low politics show how constructivism frames institutional change as discursive and ideational rather than just aggregating fixed preferences. While promising, constructivism has implementation problems and its usage as a label is unclear. Future theories may integrate rationalism and constructivism.
Easton constructed a systems theory model of politics that defines the basic processes of any political system. The model views the political system as converting "inputs" from the environment, like demands and support from citizens, into "outputs" like policies, plans and programs. There is also "feedback" as citizens react to outputs. The environment outside the political system also influences inputs, decision-making, outputs and feedback. However, critics argue the model presents an overly mechanical and rigid view of politics that better describes stable democracies and has a "black box" view of how decisions are made inside the political system.
This document discusses three themes related to geographical research: 1) The complex nature of geographical systems in terms of structural and developmental complexity. 2) Methodological plurality in geographical research due to this complexity. A variety of quantitative and qualitative methods are needed. 3) Different concepts of uncertainty and risk that arise from the complexity and stochastic nature of geographical systems, particularly societal systems. The document advocates for a systemic approach that considers hierarchies and interactions across scales to help understand these complex systems.
Thorstein Veblen is considered the founder of institutionalism. He developed a critique of orthodox economic theory and argued that human behavior is governed by instincts and habits formed by institutions, which are socially shared mental patterns. In his 1899 book The Theory of the Leisure Class, Veblen analyzed conspicuous consumption as a display of status rather than satisfying real needs. New institutionalism in the 1980s revived a focus on institutions across various disciplines like economics and political science. It views institutions as lenses for understanding these fields and reacted against approaches that neglected historical and social contexts. Traditional institutionalism deals with enduring social structures and the processes through which norms and rules become established guidelines for behavior over time.
The document compares the views of the New Right and postmodernists on the modern family. The New Right sees the nuclear family as ideal and believes that welfare programs have undermined family values, while postmodernists see diverse family forms as positive and view family structures as flexible over an individual's lifetime. Both perspectives offer insights into contemporary family structures but differ in their evaluations of non-traditional family forms.
This document discusses process theories of social movements and recognition struggles. It summarizes the key perspectives of several theorists on collective identities and social movements, including Melucci, Snow and Benford, Gamson, and della Porta and Diani. The theorists view collective identities as central to social movements and examine how identities are framed, constructed, negotiated, and incorporated into movements through processes like boundary formation. The document suggests current theory has not fully addressed how movements incorporate pre-existing identities into collective action.
Rationalism is no more useful than constructivism in explaining EU policy processes. Rationalism views preferences as fixed but constructivism argues they are socially constructed through institutions. Constructivism posits that social learning shapes identities and interests as actors interact in new institutional environments. This helps address rationalism's failure to explain changing outcomes when institutions change. Examples of high and low politics show how constructivism frames institutional change as discursive and ideational rather than just aggregating fixed preferences. While promising, constructivism has implementation problems and its usage as a label is unclear. Future theories may integrate rationalism and constructivism.
Easton constructed a systems theory model of politics that defines the basic processes of any political system. The model views the political system as converting "inputs" from the environment, like demands and support from citizens, into "outputs" like policies, plans and programs. There is also "feedback" as citizens react to outputs. The environment outside the political system also influences inputs, decision-making, outputs and feedback. However, critics argue the model presents an overly mechanical and rigid view of politics that better describes stable democracies and has a "black box" view of how decisions are made inside the political system.
rational action theory or choice theory, school of thought based on the assumption that individuals choose a course of action that is most in line with their personal preferences.
The document discusses conflict theory and its perspective on relationships. Conflict theory views relationships as being organized according to power imbalances rather than functional interdependence. It sees conflict as a natural result of inequality and unmet needs within relationships, and that addressing conflicts is necessary for change.
The document discusses Structural Functionalism as a sociological theory that views society as a structure made up of interrelated parts that work together to meet the needs of individuals. Key aspects of the theory include that social systems maintain order and equilibrium through the interdependence of institutions, and that each part impacts and adapts to other parts. The document outlines the theorists associated with Structural Functionalism and its key ideas, assumptions, and criticisms.
Sociological theory includes functionalist, conflict, and symbolic perspectives that explain human behavior and the social world. The functionalist perspective focuses on social stability and balance, while conflict perspectives examine power dynamics and how groups benefit. Both functionalist and conflict perspectives take a macro view of large-scale social institutions and structures, looking at how they shape issues in society. The symbolic perspective emphasizes micro-level interactions and how meanings and definitions created between people influence behavior.
This document summarizes the key ideas of pragmatism and institutionalism. It discusses the views of early pragmatists like Peirce, James, and Dewey, as well as institutionalist thinkers like Veblen and Polanyi. Some of the main points covered include Veblen's concepts of conspicuous consumption and sabotage, Polanyi's notion of the double movement by which societies protect themselves from the destructive effects of unfettered markets, and his view that different societies develop different varieties of capitalism through re-embedding markets in different ways.
The Role Set Problems In Sociological TheoryRaju Nair
Merton argues that each social status involves an array of roles, called a role-set, rather than a single role. A role-set includes all the role relationships a person has by virtue of occupying a particular social status. For example, the status of medical student involves the role of student as well as roles relating to other students, physicians, nurses, and others. Similarly, the status of teacher involves roles relating to pupils, colleagues, principals, and boards of education. Merton introduces the concept of the role-set to emphasize that even seemingly simple social structures are fairly complex, involving the management of numerous interconnecting role-sets.
Rational choice theory proposes that people make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize personal utility. It is used to explain social change as resulting from individuals making utility-maximizing choices. Critics argue people do not always make decisions through strict cost-benefit analysis. The theory assumes humans are goal-oriented and make rational calculations to optimize pleasure or profit when choosing between alternatives. However, it cannot fully explain phenomena like altruism that are not self-interested.
This document discusses institutions and institutional theory. It begins by outlining the significance of institutions and how they matter for economic development. It then defines institutions and lists some of their key characteristics, including structure, stability, regulating behavior, and shared values. The document also presents a typology of institutional theories, including historical institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, and normative institutionalism. It provides details on historical institutionalism and how institutions evolve over time through path dependence.
This document discusses different approaches to institutionalism, including old institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, sociological institutionalism, and historical institutionalism. Old institutionalism focused too much on formal rules without considering human behavior. Rational choice institutionalism views institutions as sets of rules that structure games and influence payoffs. Sociological institutionalism emphasizes how institutions define roles that influence behavior through a logic of appropriateness rather than consequences. Historical institutionalism examines how path dependence affects institutional change over time through processes like displacement, layering, drift, conversion and exhaustion. The approaches provide different perspectives for understanding issues like the failure to properly investigate the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence.
The document provides background information on the rational choice theory. It discusses the key assumptions of rational choice theory, including that individuals are rational actors who make choices to maximize their own benefits based on their preferences, resources, and costs/benefits of different options. The document also outlines some of the main influences on rational choice theory, such as utilitarian economics, Weber's views on rationalization in modern society, and the work of Pareto. It notes rational choice theory has been applied in fields like sociology, criminology, and economics to explain social and individual behaviors.
Comparative politics faces an uncertain future as it reaches a crossroads. It must decide whether to continue following institutionalism and rational choice approaches or simplify. Alternatively, it could embrace the complex interdependence of today's world and conduct research accordingly. The author argues comparative politics should take the latter approach to remain innovative rather than conform to American trends. It has made gains in methodology but further progress is needed to build on past work cumulatively.
The document outlines three main sociological perspectives: functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist. The functionalist perspective views society as a system of interconnected parts that maintain social equilibrium. The conflict perspective views society as groups competing for power and resources. The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on how individuals interact in small groups and how their behavior and identities are shaped by these interactions.
The document discusses several key concepts in social work theory including:
1) Critical social work, which examines power relations and challenges oppression in order to promote social change.
2) Critical consciousness, which involves deepening understanding of discrimination and one's role in history in order to become empowered agents of change rather than objects.
3) Postcolonial theory, which examines the impacts of colonialism like alienation from one's culture and internalization of inferiority. Theorists like Fanon argue this requires both individual liberation and addressing oppressive social structures.
This document provides an introduction to the study guide for the course "Comparative Political Systems" for MA Political Science students at the University of Calicut School of Distance Education. It outlines the 7 modules that will be covered in the course, including the Nature, Evolution and Scope of Comparative Politics, Theories of Comparative Politics, Federalism and Constitutionalism, functions of government, interest groups and party systems, bureaucracy, and a comparative analysis of political systems in the UK, USA, France, Russia, and China. It also lists the authors who prepared and reviewed the material. The course uses a comparative approach to analyze different countries' political institutions and processes.
Unit 4 Comparative methods and ApproachesYash Agarwal
This document provides an overview of the systems approach as a modern approach to studying comparative government and politics. It begins with objectives and an introduction on the limitations of traditional approaches. It then discusses the systems approach, including its meaning, origins in biology, key theorists who developed it like Easton, and historical context of its emergence. It distinguishes the systems approach from general systems theory, outlines characteristic features of systems analysis, and discusses concerns and objectives of the systems approach like maintaining system integrity and adapting to environmental changes.
Environmental Racism and Social Policy: Risk and Weight of History in the Uni...sebhancock
A comparative analysis of three social policy regimes and their effects on the incidence of environmental racism and environmental justice movements in those countries.
Conflict theory states that society functions through conflict between individuals and groups competing over limited resources. It views society as consisting of groups in conflict over power and resources rather than cooperation. Key aspects include inequality built into social structures that benefit those in power, change occurring through conflict rather than adaptation, and groups forming in opposition to pursue their own interests rather than cooperate for social benefits. Major theorists who contributed to conflict theory include Marx, who saw class conflict between owners and workers, and Weber, who argued multiple conflicts exist in society beyond class. Feminist conflict theory explains the oppression of women as benefiting men's pursuit of power. Modern approaches view inequality as producing conflict that can only be overcome through fundamental social transformation.
The document discusses key concepts from sociological theories including symbolic interactionism and functionalism. It explains that sociologists following functionalism look at how society works as an organism and how social order is maintained. It also discusses how symbolic interactionism focuses on how people construct meaning and understand events through social interactions. The document uses various examples to illustrate sociological concepts like anomie, social control, and power dynamics in society.
מערכת הסלע-קרקע כגורם להתיבשות אורנים ביער יתירNir Herr
ביער יתיר חלה התייבשות עצים לאחר רצף שנות בצורת, שהתרכזה בעיקר במוקדים ביער. במסגרת מחקר משולב של מכון וייצמן, אגף הייעור ומרחב דרום בקק"ל נמצא שהגורם העיקרי לכך הוא הבדלים במבנה ותכונות מערכת הסלע-קרקע. בית גידול של סלע קירטוני עם קרקע רדודה ואבנית (פחות מ-1 מ'), מהווה יתרון להתפתחות העצים, חיוניותם שרידותם. הקירטון הנקבובי משמש כעתודת מים לקיץ, הקרקע הרדודה מאפשרת מגע הדוק של שורשי העצים עם הסלע, ומתחת לאבנים שבקרקע נשמרת רטיבות יחסית המסייעת להתפתחות שורשים ולקליטת מים על ידם. כתמי ההתיבשות נוצרו בקרקע עמוקה על גבי אבן גיר
לצפייה באתר ולהורדת הקובץ ראה בקישור הבא:
Look in the site: http://nirforestecosoil.com/
In Yatir forest, located at the southern edge of the dry Mediterranean region in Israel, a patchiness mortality pattern of pines was observed after continuous droughts. The objective of the study was to identify the environmental factors that caused the mortality. Our results suggest that the preferable environment for planting pines in this region is chalk overlain by shallow and stony soil. Storage of water in this rock-soil system is the key factor affecting the survival and success of the forests
Top 5 Tips for Planning Your Post-Retirement Career by Goldstone Financial Gr...Goldstone Financial Group
While having plenty of money at your disposal during retirement is a goal for many, it’s not the only secret to happiness and fulfillment during your retirement years. Findings from the 2010 Health and Retirement Study Survey found that life satisfaction for retirees goes beyond income and wealth to include health, retirement decisions, and the quality of their social life. Making retirement decisions early and working towards these goals could just be the path to happiness for many retirees. In this presentation, Goldstone Financial Group includes some important things to consider when planning your post-retirement career.
rational action theory or choice theory, school of thought based on the assumption that individuals choose a course of action that is most in line with their personal preferences.
The document discusses conflict theory and its perspective on relationships. Conflict theory views relationships as being organized according to power imbalances rather than functional interdependence. It sees conflict as a natural result of inequality and unmet needs within relationships, and that addressing conflicts is necessary for change.
The document discusses Structural Functionalism as a sociological theory that views society as a structure made up of interrelated parts that work together to meet the needs of individuals. Key aspects of the theory include that social systems maintain order and equilibrium through the interdependence of institutions, and that each part impacts and adapts to other parts. The document outlines the theorists associated with Structural Functionalism and its key ideas, assumptions, and criticisms.
Sociological theory includes functionalist, conflict, and symbolic perspectives that explain human behavior and the social world. The functionalist perspective focuses on social stability and balance, while conflict perspectives examine power dynamics and how groups benefit. Both functionalist and conflict perspectives take a macro view of large-scale social institutions and structures, looking at how they shape issues in society. The symbolic perspective emphasizes micro-level interactions and how meanings and definitions created between people influence behavior.
This document summarizes the key ideas of pragmatism and institutionalism. It discusses the views of early pragmatists like Peirce, James, and Dewey, as well as institutionalist thinkers like Veblen and Polanyi. Some of the main points covered include Veblen's concepts of conspicuous consumption and sabotage, Polanyi's notion of the double movement by which societies protect themselves from the destructive effects of unfettered markets, and his view that different societies develop different varieties of capitalism through re-embedding markets in different ways.
The Role Set Problems In Sociological TheoryRaju Nair
Merton argues that each social status involves an array of roles, called a role-set, rather than a single role. A role-set includes all the role relationships a person has by virtue of occupying a particular social status. For example, the status of medical student involves the role of student as well as roles relating to other students, physicians, nurses, and others. Similarly, the status of teacher involves roles relating to pupils, colleagues, principals, and boards of education. Merton introduces the concept of the role-set to emphasize that even seemingly simple social structures are fairly complex, involving the management of numerous interconnecting role-sets.
Rational choice theory proposes that people make rational decisions based on weighing costs and benefits to maximize personal utility. It is used to explain social change as resulting from individuals making utility-maximizing choices. Critics argue people do not always make decisions through strict cost-benefit analysis. The theory assumes humans are goal-oriented and make rational calculations to optimize pleasure or profit when choosing between alternatives. However, it cannot fully explain phenomena like altruism that are not self-interested.
This document discusses institutions and institutional theory. It begins by outlining the significance of institutions and how they matter for economic development. It then defines institutions and lists some of their key characteristics, including structure, stability, regulating behavior, and shared values. The document also presents a typology of institutional theories, including historical institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, and normative institutionalism. It provides details on historical institutionalism and how institutions evolve over time through path dependence.
This document discusses different approaches to institutionalism, including old institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, sociological institutionalism, and historical institutionalism. Old institutionalism focused too much on formal rules without considering human behavior. Rational choice institutionalism views institutions as sets of rules that structure games and influence payoffs. Sociological institutionalism emphasizes how institutions define roles that influence behavior through a logic of appropriateness rather than consequences. Historical institutionalism examines how path dependence affects institutional change over time through processes like displacement, layering, drift, conversion and exhaustion. The approaches provide different perspectives for understanding issues like the failure to properly investigate the racist murder of Stephen Lawrence.
The document provides background information on the rational choice theory. It discusses the key assumptions of rational choice theory, including that individuals are rational actors who make choices to maximize their own benefits based on their preferences, resources, and costs/benefits of different options. The document also outlines some of the main influences on rational choice theory, such as utilitarian economics, Weber's views on rationalization in modern society, and the work of Pareto. It notes rational choice theory has been applied in fields like sociology, criminology, and economics to explain social and individual behaviors.
Comparative politics faces an uncertain future as it reaches a crossroads. It must decide whether to continue following institutionalism and rational choice approaches or simplify. Alternatively, it could embrace the complex interdependence of today's world and conduct research accordingly. The author argues comparative politics should take the latter approach to remain innovative rather than conform to American trends. It has made gains in methodology but further progress is needed to build on past work cumulatively.
The document outlines three main sociological perspectives: functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist. The functionalist perspective views society as a system of interconnected parts that maintain social equilibrium. The conflict perspective views society as groups competing for power and resources. The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on how individuals interact in small groups and how their behavior and identities are shaped by these interactions.
The document discusses several key concepts in social work theory including:
1) Critical social work, which examines power relations and challenges oppression in order to promote social change.
2) Critical consciousness, which involves deepening understanding of discrimination and one's role in history in order to become empowered agents of change rather than objects.
3) Postcolonial theory, which examines the impacts of colonialism like alienation from one's culture and internalization of inferiority. Theorists like Fanon argue this requires both individual liberation and addressing oppressive social structures.
This document provides an introduction to the study guide for the course "Comparative Political Systems" for MA Political Science students at the University of Calicut School of Distance Education. It outlines the 7 modules that will be covered in the course, including the Nature, Evolution and Scope of Comparative Politics, Theories of Comparative Politics, Federalism and Constitutionalism, functions of government, interest groups and party systems, bureaucracy, and a comparative analysis of political systems in the UK, USA, France, Russia, and China. It also lists the authors who prepared and reviewed the material. The course uses a comparative approach to analyze different countries' political institutions and processes.
Unit 4 Comparative methods and ApproachesYash Agarwal
This document provides an overview of the systems approach as a modern approach to studying comparative government and politics. It begins with objectives and an introduction on the limitations of traditional approaches. It then discusses the systems approach, including its meaning, origins in biology, key theorists who developed it like Easton, and historical context of its emergence. It distinguishes the systems approach from general systems theory, outlines characteristic features of systems analysis, and discusses concerns and objectives of the systems approach like maintaining system integrity and adapting to environmental changes.
Environmental Racism and Social Policy: Risk and Weight of History in the Uni...sebhancock
A comparative analysis of three social policy regimes and their effects on the incidence of environmental racism and environmental justice movements in those countries.
Conflict theory states that society functions through conflict between individuals and groups competing over limited resources. It views society as consisting of groups in conflict over power and resources rather than cooperation. Key aspects include inequality built into social structures that benefit those in power, change occurring through conflict rather than adaptation, and groups forming in opposition to pursue their own interests rather than cooperate for social benefits. Major theorists who contributed to conflict theory include Marx, who saw class conflict between owners and workers, and Weber, who argued multiple conflicts exist in society beyond class. Feminist conflict theory explains the oppression of women as benefiting men's pursuit of power. Modern approaches view inequality as producing conflict that can only be overcome through fundamental social transformation.
The document discusses key concepts from sociological theories including symbolic interactionism and functionalism. It explains that sociologists following functionalism look at how society works as an organism and how social order is maintained. It also discusses how symbolic interactionism focuses on how people construct meaning and understand events through social interactions. The document uses various examples to illustrate sociological concepts like anomie, social control, and power dynamics in society.
מערכת הסלע-קרקע כגורם להתיבשות אורנים ביער יתירNir Herr
ביער יתיר חלה התייבשות עצים לאחר רצף שנות בצורת, שהתרכזה בעיקר במוקדים ביער. במסגרת מחקר משולב של מכון וייצמן, אגף הייעור ומרחב דרום בקק"ל נמצא שהגורם העיקרי לכך הוא הבדלים במבנה ותכונות מערכת הסלע-קרקע. בית גידול של סלע קירטוני עם קרקע רדודה ואבנית (פחות מ-1 מ'), מהווה יתרון להתפתחות העצים, חיוניותם שרידותם. הקירטון הנקבובי משמש כעתודת מים לקיץ, הקרקע הרדודה מאפשרת מגע הדוק של שורשי העצים עם הסלע, ומתחת לאבנים שבקרקע נשמרת רטיבות יחסית המסייעת להתפתחות שורשים ולקליטת מים על ידם. כתמי ההתיבשות נוצרו בקרקע עמוקה על גבי אבן גיר
לצפייה באתר ולהורדת הקובץ ראה בקישור הבא:
Look in the site: http://nirforestecosoil.com/
In Yatir forest, located at the southern edge of the dry Mediterranean region in Israel, a patchiness mortality pattern of pines was observed after continuous droughts. The objective of the study was to identify the environmental factors that caused the mortality. Our results suggest that the preferable environment for planting pines in this region is chalk overlain by shallow and stony soil. Storage of water in this rock-soil system is the key factor affecting the survival and success of the forests
Top 5 Tips for Planning Your Post-Retirement Career by Goldstone Financial Gr...Goldstone Financial Group
While having plenty of money at your disposal during retirement is a goal for many, it’s not the only secret to happiness and fulfillment during your retirement years. Findings from the 2010 Health and Retirement Study Survey found that life satisfaction for retirees goes beyond income and wealth to include health, retirement decisions, and the quality of their social life. Making retirement decisions early and working towards these goals could just be the path to happiness for many retirees. In this presentation, Goldstone Financial Group includes some important things to consider when planning your post-retirement career.
FBL is an acronym that stands for Fairfield Beauchamp Limited, likely referring to a company or organization. The document provides no other context or details about Fairfield Beauchamp Limited.
La conceptualización se enfoca en proyectos pedagógicos, trabajo práctico y ensayos para que los estudiantes lean, analicen y aprendan a expresarse. El desarrollo implica que los estudiantes se enfocan en una idea para un proyecto basado en necesidades, estudian todos los aspectos del tema, argumentan el tema y la necesidad, planifican y presupuestan, y ponen en marcha el proyecto.
Este documento propone medidas concretas para prevenir choques y reducir sus consecuencias basadas en datos fiables. Estas medidas incluyen la incorporación de infraestructura segura para peatones y ciclistas, establecer límites de velocidad y alcohol, y aplicar leyes de seguridad como cinturones y cascos. El objetivo es evaluar el impacto de estas medidas y reducir los traumatismos causados por el tránsito.
This video discusses the history and current state of the conflict between Israel and Palestine. It covers the origins of the conflict after WWII and the creation of Israel as a homeland for Jewish people, as well as the displacement of Palestinians and ongoing disputes over borders and settlements. Overall tensions remain high between Israel and Palestinian groups like Hamas as the two sides have yet to agree on a long-term solution.
TК°Conf. Сетевые орг.структуры. Владимир Каленов.TKConf
Рассказ будет про сетевые структуры управления Holacracy (R) и подобные. А значит про модели масштабирования Agile - SAFe, NEXUs, LeSS и т.п. О проблемах в области принятия решений и выявлении компетенций.
A review of few researches of conifer adaption and survival in Israel. according the data that showed here we can estimate the following:
Pinus Brutia and P. pinea usually have an high and stable survival.
P. halepensis can be survive better than the other species in certain years in part of the sites
Cupressus sempervirens have quite good survive in the north and can be less in other regions.
C. atlantica get the higher rank on rendzina
לצפייה באתר ולהורדת הקובץ ראה בקישור הבא:
Look in the site: http://nirforestecosoil.com/
El documento proporciona información sobre la historia y el desarrollo de la ciudad de Tokio. Explica que Tokio se ha convertido en la capital de Japón desde 1866 y ha experimentado un rápido crecimiento de su población. Antes de la guerra, Tokio era una ciudad portuaria con una red ferroviaria y de metro que guiaba su expansión. Actualmente, el gobierno de Tokio tiene programas para renovar vecindarios densos y antiguos mediante la reconstrucción de viviendas y la mejora de la infraestructura.
Las páginas web suelen incluir imágenes para mejorar su apariencia y proporcionar información visual. Para insertar una imagen se usa la etiqueta <img> sin cierre, especificando la ruta de la imagen con el atributo src. Se puede añadir un borde a la imagen usando el atributo border y un valor numérico para el grosor en píxeles.
Jardins De Monet Casas De 3 E 4 Quartos No Recreio Com 2 Vagas Rio De Janeiro...BR TRADE Imoveis
A empresa de tecnologia anunciou um novo produto, um smartphone com câmera de alta resolução e bateria de longa duração. O aparelho também possui armazenamento expansível e processador rápido. O lançamento está programado para o final do ano com preço inicial sugerido de US$799.
Startup Istanbul 2016 / Christopher Rogers - Partner Lumia Capital Startup Istanbul
This document discusses how consumer usage and spending on mobile communications has shifted from traditional voice and SMS services to data-enabled communications. It also notes that businesses have followed similar trends. This has led to large growth opportunities in connectivity and digital revenues globally. However, telecom companies have struggled to innovate like technology companies. The document proposes that telecom companies can partner with startups through investments, joint ventures, and acquisitions to gain expertise, access new markets, and remain competitive in a changing industry. It provides examples of partnerships and argues that startups should consider how telecom partnerships could help with distribution, connectivity, data, and audience reach.
1. Emile Durkheim developed sociological theory to explain individual suicide rates within a social context, arguing that suicide is related to the level of social integration and group life in society.
2. Robert Merton developed strain theory to explain deviant behavior as different ways individuals attempt to achieve socially agreed upon goals like success, when the legitimate means are blocked.
3. Modern sociologists emphasize bringing together macro-level and micro-level approaches to study how social forces shape individual behavior and vice versa.
Max Weber was a German sociologist who is considered a founder of modern sociology. He conceived of sociology as the science of understanding social action and focused on subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions. Weber analyzed forms of social action and authority. He is known for his concepts of ideal types, which are analytical constructs used for comparison, and bureaucracy, the increasingly dominant form of modern organization. Weber studied the relationship between Protestantism and the emergence of capitalism in the West through his work on The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
This document discusses principles of critical discourse analysis, including its explicit sociopolitical stance and focus on how elite groups and institutions enact and reproduce dominance through text and talk. It argues that in order to relate power and discourse, we must examine social cognition and how models, knowledge, attitudes and ideologies interface between individuals and society. The document provides an analysis of parliamentary debates about ethnic affairs to illustrate these principles.
Principles Of Critical Discourse Analysisguest62891
This document discusses principles of critical discourse analysis (CDA). CDA aims to analyze how power and dominance are enacted and reproduced through discourse. It focuses on how elite groups and institutions maintain dominance and social inequality through patterns of access to public discourse. CDA takes an explicit sociopolitical stance and focuses on the perspectives of dominated groups. It examines how social cognition and representations in people's minds provide the link between discourse and the reproduction of dominance at the societal level.
This document discusses how traditional approaches to studying state-society relations, which view the state and society as distinct entities, are increasingly inadequate. It outlines trends since the 1960s that have blurred the boundaries between state and society, such as greater societal influence over policymaking, public-private partnerships, decentralization, and the expansion of civic participation. While these shifts first emerged in developed countries, similar trends are also occurring in developing nations. The document argues new conceptual approaches are needed to understand the complex, interdependent relationship between states and societies.
In my opinion the Wall Street article seems to contradict Olsons .docxbradburgess22840
This document summarizes and critiques Mancur Olson's theory presented in his book The Rise and Decline of Nations. The key points are:
1) Olson introduced the distinction between "encompassing organizations" that represent broad collective interests, and "distributional coalitions" that represent narrow special interests. He argued distributional coalitions slow economic growth over time.
2) Olson used the relative economic performances of countries like the UK, Germany, and Japan after WWII to support his theory. However, Britain's later economic reforms under Thatcher challenged his view of inevitable stagnation.
3) Olson presented a set of implications from his theory about how distributional coalitions accumulate over
Unit 3 Comparative methods and ApproachesYash Agarwal
This document discusses the institutional approach to comparative political analysis. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding what constitutes the institutional approach, its units and questions of comparison, and how it explains differences and similarities. The next sections provide an overview of the historical development of the institutional approach from ancient thinkers like Aristotle to its emergence as a predominant approach in comparative politics in the late 19th century, especially through the works of thinkers like Bryce, Lowell and Ostrogorski. It notes some key characteristics and limitations of the institutional approach, such as its focus on formal legal institutions and ethnocentric view of Western liberal democracies.
11Systems TheoryBRUCE D. FRIEDMAN AND KAREN NEUMAN ALL.docxmoggdede
11
Systems Theory
BRUCE D. FRIEDMAN AND KAREN NEUMAN ALLEN
3
Biopsychosocial assessment and the develop-ment of appropriate intervention strategies for
a particular client require consideration of the indi-
vidual in relation to a larger social context. To
accomplish this, we use principles and concepts
derived from systems theory. Systems theory is a
way of elaborating increasingly complex systems
across a continuum that encompasses the person-in-
environment (Anderson, Carter, & Lowe, 1999).
Systems theory also enables us to understand the
components and dynamics of client systems in order
to interpret problems and develop balanced inter-
vention strategies, with the goal of enhancing the
“goodness of fit” between individuals and their
environments. Systems theory does not specify par-
ticular theoretical frameworks for understanding
problems, and it does not direct the social worker to
specific intervention strategies. Rather, it serves as
an organizing conceptual framework or metatheory
for understanding (Meyer, 1983).
As a profession, social work has struggled to
identify an organizing framework for practice that
captures the nature of what we do. Many have iden-
tified systems theory as that organizing framework
(Goldstein, 1990; Hearn, 1958; Meyer, 1976, 1983;
Siporin, 1980). However, because of the complex
nature of the clinical enterprise, others have chal-
lenged the suitability of systems theory as an orga-
nizing framework for clinical practice (Fook, Ryan,
& Hawkins, 1997; Wakefield, 1996a, 1996b).
The term system emerged from Émile Durkheim’s
early study of social systems (Robbins, Chatterjee,
& Canda, 2006), as well as from the work of
Talcott Parsons. However, within social work, sys-
tems thinking has been more heavily influenced by
the work of the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy
and later adaptations by the social psychologist Uri
Bronfenbrenner, who examined human biological
systems within an ecological environment. With
its roots in von Bertalanffy’s systems theory and
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological environment, the
ecosys tems perspective provides a framework that
permits users to draw on theories from different dis-
ciplines in order to analyze the complex nature of
human interactions within a social environment.
RELEVANT HISTORY
Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901–1972), as mentioned
above, is credited with being the originator of the
form of systems theory used in social work. Von
Bertalanffy, a theoretical biologist born and educated
in Austria, became dis satisfied with the way linear,
cause-and-effect theories explained growth and
change in living organisms. He felt that change might
occur because of the interac tions between the parts
of an organism, a point of view that represented a
dramatic change from the theories of his day.
Existing theories had tended to be reductionis t,
understanding the whole by breaking it into its parts.
Von Bertalanffy’s introduction of systems theory
changed that framework by looki ...
This document discusses strategic group theory, which analyzes how social groups form and compete for resources in societies undergoing social change and modernization. It defines strategic groups as quasi-groups united by a common goal of accessing and appropriating resources, though their members may differ in other ways. As differentiation creates new social positions, "quasi-groups" like civil servants, professionals, and businessmen form, and events like economic changes can transform them into cohesive "strategic groups" that actively pursue political and economic goals. The sequence of strategic group emergence influences the new political culture and norms.
This document discusses social capital and its role during financial crisis periods. It defines social capital as the networks and relationships between individuals, and the associated norms of trust and cooperation. The document summarizes that social capital is reduced during financial crises as trust declines, and this can exacerbate crises by spreading lack of confidence. Organizations that focus on building social capital through strong internal relationships may be better able to withstand crises. The document also reviews different definitions and dimensions of social capital that have been proposed in academic literature.
Vgsfghhjkoommnbvvcxzsddghkpiyreqq I think it's social media or not I can't get over the next few weeks are reconsidering the same time was mercantilism and how historians I can do that yet I will let you know what I will do that t I will get i toh sa story nmo tom I think it's just time I get there in a few more days I
The document discusses the sociological dimension of the welfare state. It argues that the economic and political dimensions of the welfare state have been disproportionately emphasized in research and policymaking. This overemphasis represents a reductionism that eliminates consideration of important sociological, cultural, educational, and psychological consequences of the welfare state. The author aims to highlight the sociological perspective of the welfare state to provide a more comprehensive view beyond just economic and political factors.
This text analyzes recent protest movements in Portugal and Brazil from 2011-2013. It argues that these movements reflect tensions among the middle class where youth and precarious employment play a key role. It presents data on inequality in Portugal to show how the movements protested the suppression of rights and worsening working conditions. The situation in Brazil is examined in light of changing working class conditions and the constraints of Brazil's development model. The text aims to understand the social composition of the protesters based on surveys conducted during this period.
1) Community development theories provide frameworks to understand community behavior and guide practice. Seven key theories are discussed.
2) Social capital theory examines the importance of relationships and trust for collective action. Functionalism views social structures like organizations as having important roles.
3) Conflict theory analyzes power dynamics and access to resources. Symbolic interactionism explores how shared meanings are socially constructed.
(need to read all the links and need good grammar writing.I have s.docxmadlynplamondon
(need to read all the links and need good grammar writing.I have summary and outline, can be referenced from the document)
I. INTRODUCTION to the ASSIGNMENT
Institutionalized Inequalities Persists
Sociology reveals that we live in a stratified society. An individual person’s access to social resources and opportunities varies markedly depending on numerous
factors
, including those
associated with their social location at the always intersecting systems of institutionalized inequalities. Class, race, ethnicity, gender, nationality, religion, and sexual orientation
are important predictors of patterned outcomes at the social group level, across institutions. Examining these arenas at a macro level allows sociologists to achieve a more sophisticated grasp of their workings and the larger social structural dynamics at play. This higher level thinking is also necessary to the creation of well-informed strategies designed to create new forms of justice. Half measures are arguably problematic. As Malcom X once said, "If you stick a knife in my back nine inches and pull it out six inches, there's no progress. If you pull it all the way out that's not progress. Progress is healing the wound that the blow made" (1964, but as relevant as ever today).
People Make History
Sociology also reveals that people make history. We are historical agents who help (re)produce and (potentially) transform institutions and culture moment-to-moment throughout our days perpetually. As historical agents, we have the capacity to contribute to positive change in our daily lives. A more just and sustainable world is possible and looming. “Another world is not only possible, she is on her way. On a quiet day, I can hear her breathing." (
Arundhati Roy)
Social Policy is an Excellent Avenue for Concrete and Critically Informed Social Change.
Social policy is an excellent avenue for achieving social justice
because it moves human and economic resources and facilitates enacting concrete actions for concrete change. Importantly, it allocates our combined social wealth (tax dollars, human energy). We can continue to invest policy dollars and energy into war, policing, punishment, and corporate welfare--deepening the existing social relationships and macro patterns of unequal power. Another route, already underway, is to shift our resources toward policy efforts that address social inequities at their roots, and nourish healthy communities. Your readings in the final section of the class include policy platforms that you may consider models for this paper (though your proposal will necessarily be much smaller in scope, given word count limits).
Other strategies for social change include but are not limited to
legislation
(lawmaking by representative government or other governmental bodies),
litigation
(using the courts),
research
(the work of think tanks, universities, organizations, activists),
community organizing
(movement building; awareness-building;.
A Systematic Introduction to Functional Analysis in the Social Sciencesinventionjournals
No study on functional analysis can be successfully concluded without reference to Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton, both world renowned functionalist luminaries in sociology. According to these sociologists a social system is viewed as being made up of interrelated and interacting parts; the parts having consequences for the whole system or some other parts of it, and there being a feedback of the consequences of a part for the system or some other part(s) on that part. Methodologically, functionalism, then, does three things, namely, that it relates: (a) parts of the system to the whole in terms of their consequences for the total system; (b) one part of the system to another part in terms of its consequences for another; and (c) the consequences of a part, back to that part in terms of the way those parts’ consequences for the system or some other parts react upon it. There are four explicit postulates of functional indispensability, and the distinction between manifest and latent functions
This document discusses different sociological perspectives on social problems, including:
1. Functionalism views society as a system of interrelated parts that function together to maintain stability. Social problems result from a breakdown in this functioning.
2. Conflict theory sees society as composed of groups competing for resources and power. Social problems stem from the exploitation of weaker groups by more powerful ones.
3. Symbolic interactionism examines how people interact and attach meaning to each other's words and actions. People define situations based on their own perspectives.
4. Social constructionism argues that social problems are shaped by how individuals and institutions portray issues to influence public consciousness.
This document discusses the nature of social problems from a sociological perspective. It provides definitions of key concepts, including that sociology is the scientific study of human social relationships and groups. It outlines four criteria for something to be considered a social problem: 1) a real objective condition must exist, 2) people must subjectively perceive the condition as a problem, 3) it involves a gap between social ideals and realities, and 4) it must be seen as capable of collective solution. The sociological approach to analyzing social problems uses theory and research methods like case studies and surveys. Different theoretical perspectives like social disorganization and value conflict are also discussed.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
1. Submitted to Human Complexity 2012 (1st Annual Conference on Complexity and
Human Experience: Modeling Complexity in the Humanities and Social Sciences), May
30 – June 1, 2012, University of North Carolina at Charlotte.
Complexity Theory & Political Change:
Talcott Parsons Occupies Wall Street
Martin Zwick
Systems Science Graduate Program, Portland State University, Portland OR 97207
zwick@pdx.edu, http://www.pdx.edu/sysc/faculty-martin-zwick
Dec. 26, 2011
Abstract
Complexity theory can assist our understanding of social systems and social phenomena.
This paper illustrates this assertion by linking Talcott Parsons’ model of societal structure
to the Occupy Wall Street movement. Parsons’ model is used to organize ideas about the
underlying causes of the recession that currently afflicts the US. While being too abstract
to depict the immediate factors that precipitated this crisis, the model is employed to
articulate the argument that vulnerability to this type of event results from flaws in
societal structure. This implies that such crises can be avoided only if, in Parsons’ terms,
structural change occurs in the relations between polity, economy, community, and
culture. The Occupy movement has called attention to the need for such fundamental
change.
Key words:
Talcott Parsons, Occupy Wall Street, complexity, systems theory, action, AGIL model,
recession, structural change, tetradic structure, guardian vs. commercial ethics
1. Introduction
This paper revisits an early cybernetic and systems-theoretic model – today it
might be called a complex systems model – proposed by the sociologist Talcott Parsons
(1966, 1971), and argues that this model can help us understand some of the underlying
causes of the major recession afflicting the US economy today. The recession, which
followed a near total meltdown of the US financial system, has involved massive losses
of jobs, homes, and savings. This paper does not focus on concrete and proximal causes
of this crisis, i.e., on actions by home owners, mortgage providers, banks, investments
firms, regulatory agencies, Congress, the President, etc., about which there is no shortage
of accounts. Instead, it poses the question of why the US was vulnerable to such a crisis;
more specifically, what factors in the US societal structure generated this vulnerability.
By approaching the current crisis abstractly, Parsons’ model can also shed light
on past crises whose concrete and proximal causes were different. The model can also
illuminate societal problems of a completely different character. Finally, the model is
useful not only to diagnose problems but also to offer solutions; specifically, it suggests
that changes in societal structure might reduce vulnerability to such economic disasters.
2. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 2
What the model says is this: (a) A modern society, as distinct from a pre-modern
traditional society, is differentiated in that economy, polity, community, and culture are
distinguishable from (but in interaction with) one another. (b) In general, differentiation
of a whole can be flawed: different aspects of a system can be linked together too weakly
or too strongly, or links can be of the wrong kind, or one component can unduly influence
other components. (c) The current US political-economic crisis and similar crises in the
past are arguably the result of flawed differentiation, i.e., relations between economy,
polity, community, and culture are at least partially dysfunctional. This may be the
underlying cause of many (but not all) of the crises endemic to Western societies. These
crises are systemic, and avoiding them requires structural change.
The discussion that follows is liberal in orientation, but Parsons’ model itself is
politically neutral, so it is conceivable that, using the same model, another theorist having
a different political orientation might arrive at different conclusions. Indeed, this model
was once characterized as being inherently conservative, because it allegedly assumed the
stability and functionality of societal structures. This characterization is incorrect, since
Parsons’ structural functionalism can actually be used to explain either stability or
instability and either functionality or conflict.
Section 2 describes Parsons’ model. Section 3 then discusses the flaws that may
be said to characterize the societal structure of the US as depicted by this model. Section
4 considers some proposals for political change that might rectify some of these flaws.
The proposals come from the 99 Percent Declaration of the Occupy Wall Street (2011)
movement. This declaration is not an official set of demands – the movement has been
reluctant to put forward such demands – but rather the output of a working group. But
regardless of its lack of official status, the document is of interest here because some of
its demands address some of the structural flaws that, according to Section 3, exist in the
US societal system. The structural changes called for in these demands are not original to
the OWS movement, but they have not been prominent in recent political debate, so their
sudden appearance, as it were, in a document produced by a new popular movement is
intriguing.
Both the flaws of differentiation whose existence is asserted by Section 3 and the
proposed corrective measures discussed in Section 4 can be – and have been – discussed
without any reference to Parsons’ model. The point of this paper is to suggest that this
model offers a coherent framework for talking both about problems connected with the
current recession and possible solutions. By expressing them in the language of Parsons’
model, these problems are seen to be the result of an underlying structure, as opposed to
being simply historically contingent. Similarly, from the perspective of this model, many
proposed solutions to these problems derive from the need for structural change, and are
not merely ad hoc remedies. Indeed, several demands in the OWS Declaration aim
precisely at those structural changes called for by the Parsonian analysis.
3. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 3
(a)
2. Parsons’ model of societal systems
Talcott Parsons’ (1966, 1971) “action system” is a theoretical framework for
modeling societal phenomena. While the model is an old one, it would be wrong to think
that early work in systems theory/complexity is necessarily less relevant to contemporary
social issues than more recent work. As noted above, the model does not assume
harmony between the differentiated components of societal systems; this paper, in fact,
uses it to focus on disharmonies. These disharmonies can cause change, or, as in the
current US societal structure, they can be locked in, yielding a suboptimal state. Positing
structure not only allows one to explain function and account for stability; it also allows
one to explain dysfunction and account for change, or the absence of change. As a
descriptive explanation of dysfunction – and the current economic situation is surely
dysfunctional – it also has normative implications.
“Action,” taken as a general concept, is said by Parsons to exhibit the tetradic
structure shown in Figure 1(a). With some minor modifications of Parsons’ ideas, this
structure can be considered to be a special case of Bennett’s (1961) tetradic system of
purposeful action shown in Figure 1(b). Parsons and Bennett use the word “goal” in
different ways: Parsons uses the word, which labels the “east” component of Figure 1(a),
to mean a specific (tactical) purpose; Bennett uses the word, which labels the “north”
component of Figure 1(b), to mean a more general (strategic) objective.
Figure 1. Parsons' action system
(a) Parsons’ action system (b) Bennett’s similar system
In Parsons’ model, action aims at the general goal of pattern maintenance. It does
so using basic processes of adaptation, the ground of action, which relate the system to its
environment. These processes are used to attain specific goals by an instrument of
action, which is given direction by a component promoting integration. This tetradic
scheme is known as Parsons’ AGIL model: A for adaptation, G for (specific) goal
attainment, I for integration, and L for the maintenance of latent patterns.
Applied to societal systems, this scheme yields Figure 2. The economy is the
ground of societal action; it provides the material processes needed to adapt to internal
and external conditions. The polity (political order) is society’s instrument for attaining
specific goals. The community (relations based on kinship, ethnicity, language, location,
interests, etc.; this component is often analyzed with a focus on race, class, and gender) is
the integrating component of the societal system and provides the direction for the polity
as instrument. (Parsons’ actual phrase, “societal community,” is shortened here to
“community.”) Culture (religion, science, the media, literature and arts) constitutes he
patterns of knowledge and values that organize and are maintained by societal action.
adaptation
goal attainmentintegration
pattern maintenance
ground
actual
instrument
practical
direction
theoretical
goal
ideal
(b)
4. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 4
Figure 2 includes also the environment whose link to the economy is not shown; it
includes other societal systems, also not shown. Economy, polity, community, and
culture are the subjects, respectively, of the social science disciplines of economics,
political science, sociology, and anthropology (if the last of these is defined as being
centered in the study of culture).
Figure 2. Parsons’ action tetrad, applied to societal systems
The arrows in (c), (b), and (a) label the downwards information flow.
Using ideas from cybernetics and systems theory, Parsons orders the four
components of the system hierarchically, indicated by the zigzag sequence of directed
links shown in bold in the figure. The top component (culture) is information-like; the
bottom component (economy) is matter-energy-like. (The economy has informational as
well as matter-energy aspects – more on this later – but relative to the other components
its matter-energy character is salient.) Informational regulation occurs downwards
following the zigzag sequence of links: (a) polity regulates economy, (b) community
directs polity, and (c) culture guides community. There is an upwards flow as well; the
lower levels provide matter-energy support for the higher ones. In Marxist terms, the
economy is, roughly speaking, the base while the other components are the
superstructure. The Marxist claim of determination from below is not wrong, just
incomplete: there is determination both from above and from below. In fact, the upwards
flow of energy has its ultimate source not in the economy, but in nature. The flux of
matter-energy through a societal system organizes it (Adams 1975), the flux providing
the negentropic basis for its physical infrastructure. In this dual flow, this scheme
accommodates both materialist and idealist views: materialist views are reflected in the
upwards flows; idealist views are reflected in the downwards flows. This is still only a
partial representation of interactions in the structure. There are upwards information
flows as well, e.g., community generates culture, and other non-hierarchical interactions.
Intra-component interactions (not shown in the diagram) are stronger in the lower
components of economy and polity than in the higher components of community and
culture. One can thus simplify the tetrad into the dyad of economy-polity vs. community-
culture as was done by Habermas (1984), who speaks of “the system” – economy plus
polity – as opposed to the “lifeworld” – community plus culture. Habermas argues that
because of the strength of economic and political forces, the outwardly-oriented system
“colonizes” the inwardly-oriented lifeworld. However, this aggregation oversimplifies
the tensions that can exist within the tetrad, ignoring the important tension between polity
and economy which is central to the subject under discussion.
nature
economy
politycommunity
culture
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
(e)
(f)
SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENT
information matter/energy
5. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 5
The upwards and downward flows do not exhaust the connections between the
components. The four components are interconnected in other ways, and the set of
dyadic links are labeled (a) through (f) in the Figure 2. The links have multiple
meanings, but just to illustrate, “modernity” in Western societies means, for example, that
(a) the economy is partially autonomous and partially controlled by the polity;
(b) civil society determines and participates in the political order;
(c) cultural values guide but do not legally constrain private activity;
(d) church is separated from state (though religious values influence community);
(e) culture is independent of, yet supported by, commercial life.
(f) interpersonal relations are not dominated by those of economic exchange;
The doctrine that ‘modernization is differentiation’ means that differentiation increases in
modernity, not that differentiation is total. In the terminology of Herbert Simon (1962),
the system is only “partially decomposable,” since components are constrained by their
links with other components and are thus only partially autonomous. In modern societal
systems, differentiation is balanced by integration. The economy and the polity need to
be connected, since economies are not adequately self-regulating and do not necessarily
produce results in accord with societal values. The polity and community need to be
linked according to principles of democracy and civic responsibility. The community
needs to be guided by coherent sets of values. Other links are also important.
The simplest links are dyadic, and this paper will focus on these, but links can
involve more than two components (Zwick 2001). For example, there might be a triadic
interaction between polity, community, and culture that cannot be decomposed into
dyadic relations. There can be interactions that are not separable at all into simpler ones.
For a system with only four components, a four-way interaction that cannot be fully
decomposed can be called “holistic.” Archaic societies were more holistic than modern
societies; their economy, polity, community, and culture components were more tightly
integrated and less easily distinguishable. With modernity, these components became
more autonomous and distinct, but differentiation is still limited. It is impossible to
conceive of a society where these components are completely independent, although
some still fantasize the possibility of a completely autonomous market.
Structural analysis goes beyond considering possible links between components.
Each component has sub-components and thus also an inner structure. Parsons
conceived of the AGIL system as having fractal self-similarity, so each component can
itself be decomposed into A, G, I, and L parts. Community, for example, which is the I
component of the societal system, has four sub-components; its polity-like sub-
component, i.e., the G in I, is “citizenship,” with its opportunities and obligations.
This fractal conception is theoretically elegant, but a more natural decomposition of
the US polity, for example, is the separation of powers among the executive, legislative,
and judicial sub-components. This triadic differentiation of the polity was an explicit
concern of the founding fathers, and the institutionalization of separation of powers is an
example of a specific and conscious – and partially successful – solution to a problem of
6. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 6
differentiation. The polity is also decomposed hierarchically and spatially, and the
framers of the constitution also grappled explicitly with this different challenge of
differentiation, namely the issue of federal vs. states rights and powers.
Similarly, while the economy might be decomposed into AGIL sub-components, a
more natural decomposition might be based on the distinction between information and
the matter-energy aspects of the economy. The financial and knowledge sectors of the
economy are informational, while production and distribution of material goods and
energy is obviously matter-energy-like. Service industries may resemble either of these
or be intermediate in character.
3. Flaws of differentiation
As already noted, the functionalism of Parsons’ model does not imply a natural
harmony between its components, which can be mismatched or improperly related. This
is arguably the case for US society. The model posits a downwards flow of information,
i.e., regulatory control, from culture to community to polity to economy, and the most
critical segment of this pathway is the last link: the control of the economy by the polity.
In the US today, the direction of control in the last link is substantially the opposite: the
economy, i.e., the large corporations and powerful special interests, largely controls the
polity. This is accomplished by lobbying, by benefits provided to officials, by campaign
contributions, and by the revolving door through which individuals move from public
service to private employment that capitalizes on contacts and knowledge gained while in
public service. The failure of the polity to prevent the current recession and deal with it
effectively after its onset is partially due to this reversal of direction of influence.
Faulty differentiation is not merely a matter of direction of control. Loss of control
of the economy by the polity allowed behavior in the financial sector that precipitated the
recession and the danger of system-wide collapse that was barely averted. Regulation of
the financial sector having been dismantled, banks and investment firms indulged in risky
behavior. While the financial crisis led to temporary restoration of government influence
on these firms and to the recognition of the systemic dangers of unregulated financial
activity, it is doubtful that the proper lessons from this crisis have been learned, as
adequate oversight of this sector has arguably not been instituted.
As mentioned above, one way that the economy exercises its control over the polity
is via campaign contributions. The Supreme Court in the Citizens United case decided
that corporate contributions are protected free speech. This stems in part from the legal
status as “persons” that corporations now enjoy; for example, in their use of money to
influence the political process. From the perspective of Parsons’ model, this legal status
is anomalous and exemplifies another structural flaw: personhood naturally applies to
(individuals in) the community, not to (private organizations in) the economy. The right
of free speech is critical to the community-polity link, which is the basis of democracy.
Conferring upon corporations a right to “free speech” usurps and dilutes a right that
legitimately belongs to a different component of the structure. “One person, one vote”
reflects proper community→polity control; “one dollar, one vote” reflects the distortion
of economy→polity dominance.
7. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 7
In any differentiated structure involving active agents, different components vie for
influence on the whole. Where there are multiple components, there cannot be a single
organizing principle that governs the system, but necessarily two or more principles that
conflict with one another. Contradiction – or tension – is thus built inherently into the
system. US society is often described as an example of “democratic capitalism.” This
does not have to be an oxymoron: democracy refers to the community-polity link, and
capitalism refers to the economy component. These two organizing principles might be
harmoniously related or they might be at odds, but if they are at odds, as is often the case,
one must have priority. In Parsons’ model, informational regulation flows downwards
from community to polity to economy, so in principle, democracy, not capitalism, has
priority. But the actuality in the current US system is largely the reverse of this.
In von Bertalanffy’s (1979) terminology, a “leading part” of a network is a
component that has a dominant influence on other components. Because causality in a
network is invariably mutual, i.e., circular, one cannot make simple distinctions between
causes and effects, so the notion of a leading part plays a role similar to that of a primary
cause. In the US system, the economy is the leading part, as shown in Figure 3(a). It
dominates not only the polity but also community, culture, and nature. This resembles
the Marxist view of the economy as a base that determines the rest of society as a
superstructure, but from a systems – and Parsonian – perspective, this structure is not
preordained for the differentiation that comes with modernity. It is a distortion, and one
that can be corrected without replacing the economy by the polity as a leading part.
Figure 3. Economy as leading part – or subsystem of a subsystem
Arrows indicate directions of control.
Consider the economy-community link. While economic theory recognizes that
economies function well only when negative externalities are internalized by decision-
making agents, few mechanisms exist in a weakened polity that force externalities to be
internalized. In the current recession, irresponsible but in most cases legal acts by many
corporations resulted in enormous harm to the community, yet the community cannot
extract compensation for this harm from those who caused it. There are also longer-term
externalities affecting the community that manifest in the large and growing income
inequality between the great majority and a privileged minority; to use the simplifying
and expressive terminology of the Occupy movement, between the 99% and the 1%.
economy
politycommunity
culture
nature
SYSTEM
SUBSYSTEM
(b)
politycommunity
culture
economy
nature
SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENT
(a)
8. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 8
In the current recession, the government bailed out offending firms but gave the
community only minimal help via stimulus programs and unemployment benefits. The
bail-out was justified on the grounds that certain firms were judged “too big to fail.” But
the restoration of some regulatory powers and the assumption of new powers to prevent
system-wide collapse are unlikely to remedy the dangers that inhere in such bigness. The
corrective measures taken so far will not insulate regulatory agencies from capture or
prevent recurrence of crisis triggering bubbles. Already, firms too big to fail have
become still bigger.
So far the analysis has focused on links between the four components of Parsons’
model. Tensions and distortions can exist also within these components. For example,
the differentiation of the polity into executive, legislative, and judicial branches can
produce deadlock when executive and legislative branches are controlled by different
parties. This indeed currently blocks effective action by the polity, but this is not at the
core of the crisis, since it is doubtful that even a Congress controlled by a filibuster-proof
Democratic majority would implement the structural changes needed to prevent similar
crises in the future.
Intra-component distortions in the economy are more relevant to the current
recession. The economy is differentiated into informational vs. matter-energy sectors.
The informational sector – especially its financial part – has grown anomalously large
relative to the matter-energy sector. Although economic theory ascribes to the financial
sector the important function of resource allocation, it is doubtful that the added value
that this sector contributes by performing this function justifies the amount of wealth it
siphons off for itself. Here the situation is the reverse of a matter-energy-like system
colonizing an information-like lifeworld (as Habermas describes it): in the economy, it is
(part of) the informational sector that is parasitic on the rest of the economy and on the
community.
The economy may also be too integrated, so disturbances in parts of it can spread
and become amplified. It also generates bubbles, which shows that it is not optimally
self-regulating. The real estate bubble was an important cause of the current recession,
and before this bubble there were many others. The tendency to generate bubbles is a
structural flaw in that the positive feedback that manifests in speculative behavior is not
adequately controlled by the negative feedback that characterizes ideal markets. From
one viewpoint cyclic behavior is just an attractor that many dynamic systems exhibit, but
from another point of view (Bateson 1979), cyclicity demonstrates the existence of a
“logical contradiction” within the system.
Digression
Structural flaws are connected also with other societal problems. For example, the
dominance of the economy over the polity limits our ability to protect the biosphere
against harm from industrial activity – from climate change, depletion of non-renewable
resources, species extinction, etc. If allowed to do so, the economy takes control of
nature, which it treats as mere “environment” as shown in Figure 3(a), i.e., as a source for
resources and a sink for wastes, both incorrectly assumed to be infinite. The relation that
economies actually have with nature is depicted in Figure 3(b): an economy is really a
9. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 9
subsystem of a subsystem that completely depends on the biosphere. Societies are
wholly owned subsidiaries of nature, but even if we insist on the illusion that the reverse
is true, nature “belongs” to the community, not to the economy or polity. Protection of
nature may require new community-nature links, in which natural commons (air, water,
etc.) are held in trust for the future as part of a public sphere that is partially autonomous
from both economy and polity. Community is not only the locus of societal integration;
it is the component via which the future of the society can compellingly present its needs
to its present.
A second example of a structural flaw that only indirectly relates to the current
recession (but aggravates its consequences) is one specific aspect of the community-
economy link, namely the connection that now exists between employment and health
insurance. This link is a historical artifact that today is irrational, just as it would be
irrational if children’s access to education depended on their parents’ employment.
While the optimal roles that the community, polity, and economy should play in the
provision of health care may be debatable, it is plain that health care and education do not
simply belong to the province of the market. This example and the previous one are
mentioned to highlight the fact that Parsons’ model is useful not only for talking about
the recession but also about many other issues confronting society today.
4. Fixing the flaws
As mentioned in the Introduction, the 99Percent Declaration of the Occupy
movement contains demands that address some of the structural flaws discussed in the
preceding section. While this document is unofficial, and while there is also no logical
connection between the signature tactics of OWS – the occupation of public spaces – and
these demands, the movement has raised fundamental issues for public discussion.
From the joint perspective of Parsons’ model and OWS demands, if economic
crises like the current one are to be avoided in the future, the central challenge is to
establish the right direction of control between polity and economy. This requires both
increasing and decreasing the separation between these two components. With respect to
economy→polity influences, separation needs to be increased; with respect to
polity→economy influences, separation needs to be decreased. These changes, plus
some others discussed below, are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Needed structural changes
Only structural changes relevant to the current recession are noted. Intra-component
changes discussed below are not included.
Parsons’ model Some Occupy demands (and other correctives)
economy→polity insulate guardian functions from commercial influence
polity→economy empower regulation keyed to scale
economy→community decrease & internalize negative externalities of the economy
community→polity election reform; regulatory transparency
With respect to economy→polity interactions, a sharp distinction needs to be
made between the “guardian” values of the polity and the “commercial” values of the
10. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 10
economy (Jacobs 1994). Plato long ago observed that mixing these deeply different
societal functions invariably leads to corruption, and advocated radical measures to
prevent this. This separation is forcefully called for in the Declaration, although, of
course, without using this guardian-commercial terminology:
“3. Elimination of All Private Benefits and "Perks" to Politicians. The 99% of the
American People demand the immediate prohibition of special benefits to all federal
public employees, officers, officials or their immediate family members. Public
officials, politicians and their immediate families shall be banned from ever being
employed by any corporation, individual or business that the public official
specifically regulated while in office. No public employee, officer, official or their
immediate family members shall own or hold any stock or shares in any corporation
or other entity that the public official specifically regulated while in office until a full
5 years after their term is completed.
There shall be a complete lifetime ban on the acceptance of all gifts, services, money
or thing of value, directly or indirectly, by any elected or appointed public official or
their immediate family members, from any person, corporation, union or other
entity that the public official was charged to specifically regulate while in office. The
term "specifically regulate" shall mean service on a committee or sub-committee or
service within any agency or department of the federal government responsible for
the regulation of the person, union, corporation or entity seeking to directly or
indirectly confer a benefit to a public official.
It may well be that only radical measures of this sort, which enact Plato’s (and Jacobs’)
views into law, can achieve the separation of economy and polity that is necessary to
avoid corruption. Such measures may require a constitutional amendment.
This may still be insufficient to alter the power balance between polity and
economy. Public funding of elections may thus also be needed, since the prohibition of
campaign contributions from corporations and unions wouldn’t preclude contributions
from wealthy individuals and well-funded political groups, which are more legitimate,
being part of the community-polity rather than the economy-polity link. Another demand
of the Declaration calls for this measure to reduce the political influence of big money:
“1. Elimination of the Corporate State …Private fundings of campaigns from
concentrated sources of wealth have corrupted our political system. Therefore, all
private funding of political campaigns shall be replaced by the fair, equal and
total public financing of all federal political campaigns…
It has been estimated that 94% of all federal political campaigns are won by the
candidate who spends the most money. Our elected representatives spend far too
much of their time fundraising for the next election rather than doing the People's
business. This constant need for more and more money, causes our politicians to
labor under conflicts of interest that make it impossible for them to act in the best
interests of the American People.”
The dominance of the polity by the economy also derives in part from the legal
status of corporations as “persons,” which as noted above usurps a status that properly
11. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 11
belongs only to members of the community. This status needs to be revoked, and this
also is a salient demand of the Declaration:
“2. Abrogation of the "Citizens United" Case. The immediate abrogation, even if it
requires a Constitutional Amendment, of the outrageous and anti-democratic
Supreme Court holding in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. This
heinous decision proclaimed by the United States Supreme Court in 2010 equates
the payment of money to politicians by corporations, wealthy individuals and unions
with the exercise of protected free speech. We, the 99% of the American People,
demand that institutional bribery never again be deemed protected free speech.”
With respect to polity→economy interactions, the changes needed are the
opposite of the changes needed in the economy→polity link, namely the components
need to be more tightly linked. The polity must have the powers necessary to regulate
both the information, e.g., financial, and the matter-energy sectors of the economy, the
former especially to prevent financial collapse of the sort that almost occurred in the
present crisis and to limit appropriation of wealth by the financial sector to what is
justified by the function that it serves, the latter to address dangers of pollution, resource
depletion, and species extinction. Regulation must be able to force economic entities to
internalize negative externalities on the community and nature; by such internalization,
market forces are mobilized towards reducing these externalities.
As to specifics of reregulation of the financial sector, the Declaration includes
some proposals in items #16, “Banking and Securities Reform” and #18, “Ending the
Fed.” From a structural perspective, innovations in financial transactions ought to be
assessed by regulators in terms of the function of resource allocation that theory credits
this sector with performing. For example, it is doubtful that high speed computerized
trading contributes positively to this function; unless such a positive contribution can be
demonstrated, regulation should limit this activity because of the instability that it causes.
More generally, regulation needs to depend on scale, and this principle needs to
be accepted as a central consideration that should govern the polity→economy link. The
larger the impacts that an economic entity can have, the more transparent its actions must
be to public scrutiny, and the more tightly the entity must come under regulatory control.
Very large and powerful economic entities that can massively impact the community
should simply be illegal. For such entities, only a principle of “too big to fail = too big to
exist” can prevent similar crises in the future. Bigness that poses systemic risk should be
even more unacceptable than bigness that stifles competition. Small economic units,
however, should not be afflicted by onerous bureaucratic requirements. This requires
vigilance since bureaucratic hypertrophy is a characteristic dysfunction of the polity.
Regulation itself should be fully transparent to public scrutiny.
Even if the sizes of economic entities were limited, the economy is so highly
interconnected that small disturbances can still have systemic effects. When an adverse
system-wide event occurs, its causes are only superficially the specific disturbances that
triggered it, but more fundamentally the critical state of the system that amplified and
spread the local dysfunction. Such an underlying vulnerability can be mitigated to some
extent by limiting leverage and perhaps also by reducing direct dependencies between
12. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 12
firms, but interconnectivity is a mark of mature economies, and indirect links may suffice
to spread disturbances throughout the system. It would be desirable to reduce the
disproportionate size of the financial part of the economy, but even were this included
within a regulatory mandate, it is unclear how this could be accomplished. It is also
unclear if regulation could inhibit the tendency of the economy to produce bubbles;
limiting their size to reduce negative externalities and to avoid the moral hazard of
bailouts may be the best that can be done. So apart from the problem of giving regulatory
agencies the powers needed to do their job, there is the problem of providing tools with
which to do this job, and the related problem that the theory used by regulators and policy
makers and by economic agents may be inadequate; witness the failure of the theory of
financial risk that was widely accepted prior to the recession.
Weakening the economy→polity link and strengthening the polity→economy link
may need to be supplemented by also strengthening the community→polity link. Two
demands aimed at doing so are included in the Declaration: (1) term limits (item #4 in the
Declaration), and (2) abolition of the Electoral College and other campaign finance and
election reform (item #19). These issues are too complex to be taken up in this paper; the
goal in community→polity changes should be to increase the accountability of the polity
without diminishing its efficacy, and to clearly establish the primacy of the organizing
principle of democracy over the organizing principle of capitalism.
Finally, there is the need for change within culture. The prevalence of false
beliefs about the self-regulating capabilities of markets, which is the consequence of the
colonization of culture by the economy, needs to be counteracted. Public awareness that
instability and dysfunction are as natural to economies as stability and optimality would
enhance the legitimation of the polity→economy link. Economic regulation keyed to
scale should be understood as the way to preserve, not destroy, markets. And while the
distorted view of nature as resource – Figure 3(a) as opposed to Figure 3(b) – has been
partially corrected by the growing recognition of the valuable “services” that ecosystems
perform, a more radical understanding of the place of human societies in the biosphere is
still needed to prevent collapse of a bubble that is not merely economic but civilizational.
5. Summary
Theories of complexity – in older terminology, systems and cybernetics theories –
can augment the intellectual resources of the disciplines of the social science and history.
Parsons’ model, a synthesis of sociological and early systems theory, offers what Gell-
Mann (1994) called “a crude look at the whole,” here a societal whole. The thought of
Jane Jacobs, cited for its revival of Plato’s distinction between “guardian” vs. commercial
ethics, is systems-theoretic in character. Complex systems analyses of the recession and
the Occupy movement have recently been offered by Bar Yam (2011). Other systems
ideas that might be useful for understanding bubbles and the dynamics of networks are
self-organized criticality (Bak 1996), the adaptive cycle model (Holling & Gunderson
2002), and scale-free networks (Barabási & Albert 1999).
Systemic problems require systemic solutions, i.e., structural change in societal
differentiation. The current recession and the inability of the political system of the US
13. Complexity Theory & Political Change (Zwick) 13
to prevent it before it happened and deal with it after it happened point to basic flaws in
the relations between economy, polity, community, and culture in the US societal system.
Although concrete analysis of these flaws cannot avoid political judgments, seeing the
problem as being one of faulty differentiation gives this critique a relatively non-
combative tone. The diagnosis also suggests that with structural change these flaws are
remediable. The organizing principle of a market economy is compatible with the
organizing principle of democracy if – and only if – primacy is given to democracy.
Parsons’ model is not introduced here to discover societal problems or possible
solutions to these problems that are now unrecognized. It is introduced as a framework
within which known problems and their possible solutions can be discussed coherently.
Abstract models may be more effective than concrete models for identifying the essence
or deep structure of societal problems, for seeing the forest rather than the many trees.
From a complex systems perspective, the essence of the current recession, viewed at a
suitable level of abstraction, is in fact not particularly complex. Public understanding of
the need for structural changes in the US societal system may be currently lacking, but an
increase in such understanding in the future is not unimaginable.
Acknowledgments
Thanks to Hugo du Coudray and Elinor Langer for helpful comments on this manuscript.
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