Communication skills

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ENG-102
English Language Skills
Study Material
2020

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Contents Page Number
INTREGRATED LANGUAGE SKILLS 3
COMPREHENSION 13
PARAGRAPH WRITING 22
ESSAY WRITING 27
PRESENTATION SKILLS 50
PRECIS WRITING 63
STORY WRITING 72
INTERVIEW SKILLS 75

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English Language Skills
Four skills of language
There are a set of four capabilities that allow an individual to comprehend and produce spoken language
for proper and effective communication.
These skills are Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing.
1-LISTENING SKILL
Listening is the communication skill most of us use the most frequently. Various studies stress the
importance of listening as a communication skill. A typical study points out that many of us spend 70 to
80 percent of our waking hours in some form of communication. Of that time, we spend about 9 percent
writing, 16 percent reading, 30 percent speaking, and 45 percent listening. Studies also confirm that most
of us are poor and inefficient listeners.
Listening is the language skill we acquire in our native language. It is what is known as a receptive skill,
or a passive skill, as it requires us to use our ears and our brains to comprehend language as it is being
spoken to us. It is the first of two natural language skills, which are required by all natural spoken
languages. The importance of listening is crystal clear in any organization and business. Listening is
learning. A person cannot learn when he is talking. He learns when he listens to others. Good listeners are
good leaders, good learners and good speakers
The importance of listening is crystal clear in any organization and business. Listening is learning. A
person cannot learn when he is talking. He learns when he listens to others. Good listeners are good
leaders.
The process of listening starts from the very first day of one’s birth and in this way we spend most of our
time engaged in listening. Listening is a complex and a selective process of receiving ideas, thoughts,

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orders and information. This skill is not inborn. It is acquired by conscious learning and it plays a vital
role in our life
Listening can be defined as the accurate perception of what is being communicated. It may also be defined
as “an active process of receiving aural stimulus”.
As far as accuracy is concerned, it may be stated is never 100%. Because of the different perceptions of
individuals, there might be difference in understanding the real sense of the message.
Listening Process:
• The process of listening is twofold; (i) decoding (ii) giving an internal response.
• The process of decoding takes place as soon as the message reaches the receiver. At this stage, the
listener decides how much information he can use or consider relevant. After it, communication
progresses to second stage that is giving an internal response to perceived message.
Hearing and Listening
Hearing is simply the recognition of sounds whether these sounds are organized or disorganized. We hear
all sorts of noise around us without paying much attention. But listening is a process of giving conscious
attention to whatever is being said. Hearing is the process in which sound waves strike eardrums and
cause vibrations that are transmitted to the brain. Listening occurs when the brain reconstructs these
electrochemical impulses into representation of original sounds and then give them meaning
SPEAKING SKILL
Speaking is the language skill we acquire in our native language. It is what is known as a productive
skill, or an active skill, as it requires us to use our vocal tract and our brains to correctly produce
language through sound. It is the second of two natural language skills.

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We spend most of our time speaking to each other. It is our natural mode of communication through
which we exchange our ideas, share information and express our feelings. Speaking means making a
speech to an individual or a group of people for the purpose of delivering and transmitting our ideas to
others.
PURPOSES OF INFORMATIVE SPEAKING
• Informative speaking offers you an opportunity to practice your researching, writing, organizing, and
speaking skills.
• It is to provide interesting, useful, and unique information to your audience. By dedicating yourself to
the goals of providing information and appealing to your audience, you can take a positive step toward
succeeding in your efforts as an informative speaker.
KINDS OF SPEAKING SKILLS
Informative speaking is of four kinds, briefing, instruction, goodwill, and report.
1-Briefing:
In this type of speech, the speaker explains and elaborates the background of any problem or matter and
then presents the present situation to inform and make people aware of the present state of affairs.
2-Instruction:
This type of speech is most of the time is used by the seniors and the superiors in an organization. They
instruct the employees and the juniors to make their performance better and to accomplish the tasks in the
best possible ways.
3-Goodwill:

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Speech is also used to build goodwill because no business can be run without building goodwill. Such
kind of speech is delivered by the firm’s representative to build confidence among people and to win
customers.
4-Report:
This type of speech is used in meetings, seminars, conferences where a person reads the reports of his
organization to inform as well as inspire people about the performance of his organization
MAIN PARTS OF INFORMATIVE SPEECH
There are three parts of informative speech.
1-Introduction 2-Body 3-Summary
1- Introduction:
• The introduction sets the tone of the entire speech. The introduction should be brief and to-the-point as
it accomplishes several important tasks. As in any social situation, your audience makes strong
assumptions about you during the first eight or ten seconds of your speech. For this reason, you need to
start solidly and launch the topic clearly.
• To get the attention of your audience, you may start your speech in the following ways:
• Use a Quotation:
• The use of quotation may give a good start to your speech and inspire your audience to listen to you
with interest. You may also use an anecdote, a joke or a story relating to your speech.
• Purpose Sentence:
• Start your speech with stating the purpose of your speech.

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• Question Opening:
• You can get the attention of your listeners by asking a question that may make your audience think
about your offer or view points.
2- Body
• The body contains the bulk of information in your speech and needs to be clearly organized. Without
clear organization, the audience will probably forget your information, main points, perhaps even your
thesis. Some simple strategies will help you create a clear, memorable speech.
• To organize the main section of your speech you may choose one of the following organizational
plans:
• Topical organization:
• You can divide your speech into certain topics. In this way you can elaborate each topic separately
without mixing it with others.
• Chronological organization:
• In this form of organization the speaker presents and describes the events and incidents in the
chronological order according to their happening i.e., past, present, future.
3- Summary:
• In this part of your speech, you should try to summaries the whole message that you have conveyed. In
this way your audience may recall the whole message. At this stage never go against the ideas that you
have already described in your speech.
READING SKILL

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Reading is the language skill we may acquire in our native language. As with listening, it is a receptive,
or passive skill, as it requires us to use our eyes and our brains to comprehend the written equivalent of
spoken language. It is one of the two artificial language skills, as not all natural spoken languages have a
writing system
The four main types of reading techniques are the following:
1-Skimming. 2-Scanning.3- Intensive.4- Extensive.
• The most important subs kills of Reading are Skimming and Scanning
• Skimming and scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement and keywords to move
quickly through text for slightly different purposes.
Skimming is reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material.
• While skimming tells you what general information is within a section, scanning helps you locate a
particular fact. Skimming is like snorkeling, and scanning is more like pearl diving.
• Use skimming in previewing (reading before you read), reviewing (reading after you read),
determining the main idea from a long selection you don't wish to read, or when trying to find source
material for a research paper.
Use scanning in research to find particular facts, to study fact-heavy topics, and to answer questions
requiring factual support
• Skimming can save you hours of laborious reading. However, it is not always the most appropriate
way to read.
• Skimming can tell you enough about the general idea and tone of the material, as well as its gross
similarity or difference from other sources, to know if you need to read it at all.

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• People often skim when they are in hurry, have a lot to read, or need to review something you read
previously.
• Skimming is used when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research, find dates,
names, and places or review graphs, tables, and charts.
The basic method of skimming:
 Read the title. It is the shortest possible summary of the content.
 Read the table of contents or chapter overview to learn the main divisions of ideas.
 Read headings, subheadings to find out what the text is about.
 Read the whole first paragraph (introduction).
 Read the first and last sentence of each paragraph.
 Look at the illustrations (pictures, charts, or graphs) to give you more information about the topic.
 Look out the keywords (italicized or boldface words or phrases).
 Read the entire introductory paragraph and then the first and last sentence only of each
following paragraph.
 Read the whole last paragraph (conclusion)
 Read chapter summaries when provided.
If you cannot complete all the steps above, :
• read only the chapter overviews and summaries, for example, or the summaries and all the boldfaced
keywords. When you skim, you take a calculated risk that you may miss something. For instance, the main
ideas of paragraphs are not always found in the first or last sentences (although in many textbooks they
are). Ideas you miss you may pick up in a chapter overview or summary.
• Good skimmers do not skim everything at the same rate or give equal attention to everything. While
skimming is always faster than your normal reading speed, you should slow down in the following
situations:

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• When you skim introductory and concluding paragraphs
• When you skim topic sentences
• When you find an unfamiliar word
• When the material is very complicated
Scanning
Scanning is reading a text quickly in order to find specific information, e.g. figures or names. It can be
contrasted with skimming, which is reading quickly to get a general idea of meaning
Scanning for research and study
• Scanning, too, uses keywords and organizational cues. But while the goal of skimming is a bird's-eye
view of the material, the goal of scanning is to locate and swoop down on particular facts.
• Facts may be buried within long text passages that have relatively little else to do with your topic or
claim. Skim this material first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need. Don't forget to scan
tables of contents, summaries, indexes, headings, and typographical cues. To make sense of lists and
tables, skim them first to understand how they are organized: alphabetical, chronological, or most-to-least
• If after skimming you decide the material will be useful, go ahead and scan:
• Know what you're looking for. Decide on a few key words or phrases–search terms, if you will.
• Look for only one keyword at a time. If you use multiple keywords, do multiple scans.
• Let your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you want.
• When your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material carefully.
Scanning to answer questions

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• If you are scanning for facts to answer a specific question, one step is already done for you: the
question itself supplies the keywords. Follow these steps:
• Read each question completely before starting to scan. Choose your keywords from the question itself.
• Look for answers to only one question at a time. Scan separately for each question.
• When you locate a keyword, read the surrounding text carefully to see if it is relevant.
• Re-read the question to determine if the answer you found answers this question.
• Scanning is a technique that requires concentration and can be surprisingly tiring. You may have to
practice at not allowing your attention to wander. Choose a time and place that you know works for you
and dive in.
Difference between skimming and scanning
• The difference between skimming and scanning consists of purpose and technique.
• Purpose
• Skimming is a reading technique meant to give you an idea of what the full text is about.
• Scanning is meant to help you find specific information in a text.
• Technique
• Skimming techniques include reading the introduction, the headlines, or the first phrase of the
paragraph.
• On the other hand, scanning means looking over the whole text quickly in search of specific
information.
• You skim a text at first sight and decide on whether to read it in full. However, when it comes to
scanning, it is implied that you know at least the information you are looking for.

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Intensive and Extensive: 2 Ways of Reading That Power Language Learning
• Extensive and intensive reading refer to approaches to language learning and teaching. From their
names, you can probably deduce that they both celebrate reading as an integral part of language
learning. Where they differ, however, is in their approach to this activity.
• Extensive reading involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills.
It can be compared with intensive reading, which means reading in detail with specific learning aims and
tasks.
• Example
A teacher reads a short story with learners, but does not set them any tasks except to read and listen. In
classroom extensive reading is often overlooked, especially as a classroom activity. Teachers often feel it
is not an effective use of class time or are just uncomfortable with the extended silence. Learners can be
encouraged to read extensively by setting up a class library, encouraging review writing, and
incorporating reading of books into the syllabus, and dedicating some class time to quiet reading
Intensive reading
• Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. It can be
compared with extensive reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop
general reading skills.
• Intensive reading, focuses on closely following a shorter text, doing exercises with it, and learning it in
detail. According to this approach, this helps language learners really understand the language’s grammar
and syntax. Example
• The learners read a short text and put events from it into chronological order. In the classroom
Intensive reading activities include skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false
statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match headings to paragraphs, and scanning
jumbled paragraphs and then reading them carefully to put them into the correct order Intensive reading

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involves learners reading in detail with specific learning aims and tasks. It can be compared with extensive
reading, which involves learners reading texts for enjoyment and to develop general reading skills.
Example
WRITING SKILL
• According to Hornby (2005), writing means “to make letters or numbers on a surface, especially using
a pen or a pencil.” Richards & Renandya (2002) mention that writing is the most difficult skill for L2
learners, since they need to generate ideas, organize them and translate these ideas into readable text
which can be very difficult for students.
• Spellings are one of the reasons that English learners find writing difficult. Spelling learning is
difficult for students of English as the correspondence between the sound of a word and the way it is spelt
is not always obvious.
• A single sound may have many different spellings and the same spelling may have many different
sounds (train,crane,engaged,point,right,rose).Other challenges faced by English learners include
coherence and cohesion of thought, logical development of an idea and Punctuation which are essential in
writing.
• There are many types of writing activities like Essay writing, Report writing, Letter or CV writing etc.
Comprehension
• Comprehension is the ability' to understand or grasp meaning from any type of written material. It is
the most important component of all content learning. Comprehension exercises require a student to show
understanding of the information in the given passage.
• Students may be required to give or recognize synonyms for words in the passage, answer questions
about the content, infer implied meaning, rewrite sentences in a different construction, summarize the
main ideas, or interpret charts or graphs. This ability is higher than the simple remembering of material.

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• Comprehension is the thinking done during, and after reading a passage. It is not something that
happens after reading. So, the passage must be read carefully, without hurrying through it.
TIPS FOR COMPREHENSION
1. Read the passage given carefully two or three times if necessary, till you understand clearly, its subject
or themes and what is said about the subject or main themes. Ask yourself, ‘what does the author say
about the subject’?
2. Read the questions one by one carefully, and find out whether you fully understand them.
3. Now take up the first question and find out to which part of the passage it refers to.
4. Then take up the other question and find out the parts of the passage they refer to.
5. Now write answers to questions in your own words.do not adopt the language of given passage, the
answers should be brief and to the point. No attempt should be made to show one’s knowledge by saying
things that are not included in the original passage.
6. Revise your answers and examine them carefully to see that they are clear and complete. If an answer
is too long, you must further compress it by omitting unnecessary details or by remoulding sentences.
7. Correct all mistakes in spelling, grammar and idiom and see that your sentences are properly
punctuated, let the answer be simple and direct. The ability to read properly and understand not only the
general sense of a given passage but its particular implications is becoming more important in modern
education.
Previewing
Previewing is a strategy that readers use to recall prior knowledge and set a purpose for reading. It calls
for readers to skim a text before reading, looking for various features and information that will help as

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they return to read it in detail later.According to research, previewing a text can improve comprehension
(Graves, Cooke, & LaBerge, 1983, cited in Paris et al., 1991).
Why use it?
Previewing a text helps readers prepare for what they are about to read and set a purpose for reading.
When to use it?
Previewing is a strategy readers use before and during reading.
How to use it?
When readers preview a text before they read, they first ask themselves whether the text is fiction or
nonfiction.
 If the text is fiction or biography, readers look at the title, chapter headings, introductory notes, and
illustrations for a better understanding of the content and possible settings or events.
 If the text is nonfiction, readers look at text features and illustrations (and their captions) to determine
subject matter and to recall prior knowledge, to decide what they know about the subject. Previewing also
helps readers figure out what they don’t know and what they want to find out.
Things to remember in Previewing
• What is it about?
• How is it organized?
• What’s important?
How to Preview?

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Whatever your purpose is for reading a particular piece of writing, you should have three objectives to
meet as you read:
• to identify the author’s most important points,
• to recognize how they fit together, and
• to note how you respond to them.
You can preview different kinds of reading material. For example,
You might preview
1. The newspaper by reading headlines
2. A letter by looking at the envelope
3. A new book by reading the front and back cover Preview can help you make decisions. It can help
you decide:
4. Which articles to read in the newspaper
Look at the photo and the tittle of the reading. What will this reading be about?
Reading for main idea,
• The main idea is the central, or most important, idea in a paragraph or passage. It states the purpose and
sets the direction of the paragraph or passage.
• The main idea may be stated or it may be implied.
• When the main idea of a paragraph is stated, it is most often found in the first sentence of the paragraph.
However, the main idea may be found in any sentence of the paragraph.
• The main idea may be stated in the first sentence of a paragraph and then be repeated or restated at the
end of the paragraph.

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• The main idea may be split. The first sentence of a paragraph may present a point of view, while the last
sentence presents a contrasting or opposite view.
To find the main idea of any paragraph or passage, ask these questions:
1. Who or what is the paragraph about?
2. What aspect or idea about the ‘who’ or ‘what’ is the author concerned with?
Paragraph one
It is often said that lightning never strikes twice in the same place, but this isn’t true. Go ask the
forest rangers. Rangers who spend their summers as fire-fighters will tell you that every thundershower
brings several bolts of lightning to their lookout stations.
(Notice that the first sentence tells what the paragraph is about; the sentences that follow support the idea
stated in the first sentence.)
Paragraph Two
Costs were low that year and the output high. There was a good person for each job and the market
remained firm. There were no losses from fire. All in all it was the best years in the history of the
company.
(Note that the first three sentences give details to explain why it was the best year in the company’s
history.)
Paragraph Three

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There are great numbers of deer around here. This whole area is great country for hunters and
fishermen. There are bears, mountain lions, and coyotes. To the east there are streams full of trout, and
there are ducks and geese.
(The author begins and ends with examples. The main idea is stated in the second sentence.)
Using context for vocabulary
Vocabulary in context refers to the sentences or the whole paragraph surrounding an unfamiliar word.
Context clues are used to make a good guess at the word’ meaning. There are six different types of context
clues:
 definition/restatement
 example
 synonym
 comparison
 contrast
 cause and effect .
For example;
1. The spy was hung at the gallows of his homeland fo his perfidious deeds.
( disloyal; treacherous; deceitful)
2. We always listen to my great-aunt because she is venerable, but we ignore my niece’s advice because
she’s only six.
(respected; esteemed; revered)
3. The teacher admonished her student for misbehaving during the lesson.

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(reprimanded; cautioned; reproved)
Making inferences:
Making an inference involves using what you know to make a guess about what you don't know or
readingbetween the lines. Readers who make inferences use the clues in the text along with their own
experiences to help them figure out what is not directly said, making the text personal and memorable.
Why Is It Important?
Researchers have confirmed that thoughtful, active, proficient readers are metacognitive; they think about
their own thinking during reading. They can identify when and why the meaning of the text is unclear to
them and can use a variety of strategies to solve comprehension problems or deepen their understanding of
a text (Duffy et al. 1987).
When we make an inference, we draw a conclusion based on the evidence that we have available. When
we make inferences while reading, we are using the evidence that is available in the text to draw a logical
conclusion. The writer or speaker does not come out and state the answer to the question that we are
asking of the text-rather, we have to use the evidence that is there to make an informed statement to
answer whatever question we are asking.
Examples of Inference:
• A character has a diaper in her hand, spit-up on her shirt, and a bottle warming on the counter. You
can infer that this character is a mother.
• A character has a briefcase, is taking a ride on an airplane, and is late for a meeting. You can infer
that this character is a businessperson.
• A character uses words like "stat" and "emergency" and "prep" and "operation." You can infer that
this person works in the medical field.

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Identifying Exception:
. The things not mentioned in the Reading and require your Scanning Skill.
Referring to the passage
What’s the function?
Purpose of reference questions ask you to identify why the author referred to something in a certain part of
the text. In other words, what was the point of including the reference?
Examples:
 “The author refers to the ____ in order to...”*
 “The author’s reference to ____ (lines ____) serves which one of the following functions in the
passage?*
The task is to interpret the function of the reference
Strategies
Don’t overthink it! Unless the reference left you puzzled, you probably already understood the author’s
purpose as you made your way through the passage. Put another way, the purpose that you automatically
supplied in the process of reading is probably the correct one. So try to come up with the answer in your
own words first, and then select the choice that best matches your prediction.
Read around the reference If the reference did leave you puzzled or if you need a refresher, then go back
and reread the immediate context around the lines. The author often will supply all the cues you need to

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understand the purpose of any part of the text right around that text. If that doesn’t quite work, move to the
next strategy!
Review the first sentence of the paragraph The reference may well operate as support for a claim made
in the first sentence of the paragraph. It’s unlikely that there will be hints as to the purpose of a particular
reference two or three paragraphs away. If it’s still not clicking, review the last sentence of the paragraph,
and the last sentence of the preceding paragraph.
Make sure you understand the overall point the author is making The reference may well have been
included by the author in order to directly support the main argument.
Top Tip: Most of the time, these references are to studies or other forms of evidence, and they function
simply to support a claim or position that the author makes/takes in the passage. Again, this position
may or may not be explicit, but the chances are good that you’ve absorbed it during your first active
reading of the passage.
PASSAGE
Space travel is by far the most expensive type of exploration ever undertaken by man. The vast
expenditure of money and human effort now being devoted to projects of putting man into space might
well be applied to ends more practically useful and more conducive to human happiness. It is a strange
world in which tens of millions of pounds are spent to give one man a ride round the earth at thousands of
miles an hour, while beneath him in his orbit live millions for whom life is a daily struggle to win a few
coins to buy their bread and butter. The money and effort that go into the development and construction of
a single type of space-rocket would more than suffice to rid several countries of such scourge as malaria
or typhoid fever, to name only two of diseases that medical science has conquered but which still persist in
the world simply because not enough money and effort are devoted to their eradication. Why should the
richer countries of the world be pouring their resources into space when poverty and disease on the earth
are crying out for relief? One could give a cynical answer to this question and assert that man's expensive
adventures into space are merely the by-products of the struggle between great powers for prestige and

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possible military advantage.
QUESTIONS
(i) Why is it a strange world?
(ii) Why do malaria and typhoid still exist in the world?
(iii) Why is man pouring his resources into space?
(iv) Explain the meanings of the following words:
(a) Scourge (b) Eradication
(v) Suggest a suitable title for the passage.
ANSWERS
(i) It is a strange world because it does not do what it should do. It is wasting a lot of money and effort on
space exploration while millions of people on the earth are starving due to lack of money and concern.
(ii) Malaria and typhoid still exist in the world because
(a) Scientists put more efforts on space exploration than on these disease.
(b) The money needed to eradicate these diseases is wasted on space exploration.
(iii) Man is pouring his resources into space because
(a) He wants to gain prestige or good reputation in the world.
(b) He hopes to get possible military and strategic advantages against others.
(iv) (a) Scourge means a source of widespread dreadful affliction and devastation such as that caused by
pestilence or war.
(b) Eradication means the complete destruction or extermination of every trace of something.
(v) Suitable Title
Advantages and Disadvantages of Space Exploration
Paragraph Writing

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What is a paragraph?
Paragraphs are comprised of sentences, but not random sentences. A paragraph is a group of sentences
organized around a central topic. In fact, the cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to focus on one idea. A
solidly written paragraph takes its readers on a clear path, without detours. Master the paragraph, and
you’ll be on your way to writing “gold-star” essays, term papers, and stories.
Characteristics of a paragraph
A basic paragraph structure usually consists of five sentences: the topic sentence, three supporting
sentences, and a concluding sentence. But the secrets to paragraph writing lay in four essential elements,
which when used correctly, can make a okay paragraph into a great paragraph.
1. Element #1: Unity. Unity in a paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every paragraph has one
single, controlling idea that is expressed in its topic sentence, which is typically the first sentence of the
paragraph. A paragraph is unified around this main idea, with the supporting sentences providing detail
and discussion. In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your theme and all the points you want
to make. Decide which point drives the rest, and then write it as your topic sentence.
2. Element #2: Order. Order refers to the way you organize your supporting sentences. Whether you
choose chronological order, order of importance, or another logical presentation of detail, a solid
paragraph always has a definite organization. In a well-ordered paragraph, the reader follows along easily,
aided by the pattern you’ve established. Order helps the reader grasp your meaning and avoid confusion.
3. Element #3: Coherence. Coherence is the quality that makes your writing understandable.
Sentences within a paragraph need to connect to each other and work together as a whole. One of the best
ways to achieve coherency is to use transition words. These words create bridges from one sentence to the
next. You can use transition words that show order (first, second, third); spatial relationships (above,
below) or logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact). Also, in writing a paragraph, using a consistent verb
tense and point of view are important ingredients for coherency.

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4. Element #4: Completeness. Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences
clearly and sufficiently support the main idea, then your paragraph is complete. If there are not enough
sentences or enough information to prove your thesis, then the paragraph is incomplete. Usually three
supporting sentences, in addition to a topic sentence and concluding sentence, are needed for a paragraph
to be complete. The concluding sentence or last sentence of the paragraph should summarize your main
idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.
Types of paragraphs
There are four types of paragraphs that you need to know about: descriptive, narrative, expository, and
persuasive. A quick search around the internet will yield other types, but to keep this simple, it's a good
idea to consider just these four.
Descriptive paragraph: This type of paragraph describes something and shows the reader what a thing or
a person is like. The words chosen in the description often appeal to the five senses of touch, smell, sight,
sound, and taste. Descriptive paragraphs can be artistic and may deviate from grammatical norms.
Narrative paragraph: This type of paragraph tells a story. There's a sequence of action or there's a clear
beginning, middle, and end to the paragraph.
Expository paragraph: This type of paragraph explains something or provides instruction. It could also
describe a process and move the reader step by step through a method. This type of paragraph often
requires research, but it's possible that the writer is able to rely on his or her own knowledge and expertise.
Persuasive paragraph: This type of paragraph tries to get the reader to accept a particular point of view
or understand the writer's position. This is the type of paragraph that many teachers focus on because it's
useful when building an argument. It often requires the collection of facts and research.
It important to point out that many paragraphs are a combination of these four types, but for the purpose of
instruction, let's consider some examples of each:

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EXAMPLES
Now let us examine a few paragraphs by standard authors, in illustration of these principles of paragraph
construction.
1. “Hence it is that it is almost a definition of a gentleman to say he is one who never inflicts pain. This
description is both refined and, as far as it goes, accurate. He is mainly occupied in merely removing the
obstacles which hinder the free and unembarrassed action of those about him; and he concurs with their
movements rather than takes the initiative himself. His benefits may be considered as a parallel to what
are called comforts or conveniences in arrangements of a personal nature, like an easy chair or good fire,
which do their part in dispelling cold and fatigue, though nature provides both means of rest and animal
heat without them.” - J.E. Newman.
This is a paragraph from Cardinal Newman's famous description of a “Gentleman” in his The Idea of a
University, Notice that the paragraph is confined to one point in the character of a gentleman, which is
clearly stated in the first, or topical sentence viz., that "he is one who never inflicts pain." The rest of the
paragraph is simply a development and illustration of the topical sentence. And the concluding sentence
drives home the statement of the subject with its similies of the easy chair and the good fire.
2. "The Road is one of the great fundamental institutions of mankind. Not only is the Road one of the
great human institutions because it is fundamental to social existence, bin also because its varied effects
appear in every department of the State, It is the Road which determines the sites of many cities and the
growth and nourishment of all. It is the Road which controls the development of strategies and fixes the
sites of battles. It is the Road that gives framework to all economic development. It is the Road which is
the channel of all trade, and, what is more important, of all ideas, In its most humble function
it is a necessary guide without which progress from place to place would be a ceaseless experiment; it is a
sustenance without which organised society would be impossible, thus the Road moves and controls all
history." - Hilaire Belloc.

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In this paragraph, the first sentence states the subject. It is the topical sentence. The body of the paragraph
consists of examples which prove the statement in the first sentence. The final sentence sums up the
whole.
3. "Poetry is the language of the imagination and the passions. It relates to whatever gives immediate
pleasure or pain to the human mind. It comes home to the bosoms and businesses of men; for nothing but
what comes home to them in the most general and intelligible shape can be a subject for poetry. Poetry is
the universal language which the heart holds with nature and itself. He who has a contempt for poetry
cannot have much respect for himself, or for anything else. Wherever there is a sense of beauty, or power,
or harmony, as in the motion of a wave of the sea, in the growth of a flower, there is poetry in its birth." -
William Hazjitt.
Here again, the first sentence is the topical sentence. The sentences that follow enforce or restate the
statement that "poetry is the language of the imagination and the passions"; and the concluding sentence
reinforces it by showing that poetry exists wherever men feel a sense of beauty, power or harmony.
In all these paragraphs, the principles of Unity and Order are observed, and also the general rules about
the place of the topical sentences and the rounding off the whole with a good conclusion.
THE WRITING OF SINGLE PARAGRAPHS
So far we have been treating of paragraphs which are sections of a more or less lengthy composition, like
an essay or the chapter of a book. But students are often asked in examinations to write short separate
paragraphs, instead of essays, on subjects of ordinary interest. Such single paragraphs are really miniature
essays; but the same principles as we have discussed above (except the principle of variety), must be
followed in their construction. Each paragraph must be a unity, treating of one definite subject, and must
follow a logical order of thought. In most cases, too, the rules about the topical sentences and the
conclusion should be borne in mind.

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A few examples should make this clear. Suppose, for example, you are asked to write a paragraph on “The
Cat.” It is obvious that you cannot treat this subject fully, as you might in a long essay. And yet you must,
according to the principle of unity, confine your paragraph to one definite topic. You must, therefore,
choose one thing to say about a cat, and stick to it throughout. You might, for example, write of one
characteristic of the cat, say, its love of comfort and attachment to its home. In that case, you might write a
paragraph something like this:
The Cat There is some truth in the common saying that while dogs become attached to persons, cats are
generally attached to places. A dog will follow his master anywhere, but a cat keeps to the house it is used
to; and even when the house changes hand, the cat will remain there, so long as it is kindly treated by the
new owners. A cat does not seem to be capable of the personal devotion often shown by a dog. It thinks
most of its own comfort and its love is only cupboard love.
Notice the construction of this paragraph. It begins with the topical sentence, which clearly states the
subject. The following sentence explains the statement by expanding it; and the last sentence, by giving a
reason for the attachment of a cat to a particular house forms a fitting conclusion. The paragraph is
therefore a Unity, treating of one characteristic of cat character: and it follows an orderly plan.
The paragraph on the cat is descriptive. Now take an example of a narrative paragraph, in which you are
required to tell a story. Suppose the subject is to be a motor-car accident; you might treat it in this way:-
ESSAY WRITING
For our academic writing purposes we will focus on four types of essay.

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The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter while in academia.
Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and comfortable with this type of writing early on
in her training.
Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned either to be done in
class, which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of creativity) on the part of the student, or
as homework, which likewise demands a certain amount of preparation. Many poorly crafted essays have
been produced on account of a lack of preparation and confidence. However, students can avoid the
discomfort often associated with essay writing by understanding some common genres.
Before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.
What is an essay?
Though the word essay has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern English, its origins
provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the English language through the French
influence on Middle English; tracing it back further, we find that the French form of the word comes from
the Latin verb exigere, which means "to examine, test, or (literally) to drive out." Through the excavation
of this ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the academic essay: to encourage students to
test or examine their ideas concerning a particular topic.
Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such as close
reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and exposition. As is
evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student who strives to succeed at
essay writing.
The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in their writing with the
direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to view the essay as the converse of a
research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature) concise and require clarity in purpose and direction.

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This means that there is no room for the student’s thoughts to wander or stray from his or her purpose; the
writing must be deliberate and interesting.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SCHOOL ESSAY
1. Unity: An essay must be a unity, developing one theme with a definite purpose. The subject must be
clearly defined in the mind and kept in view throughout. Nothing that is not relevant to it should be
admitted to the essay. At the same time, the subject may be treated in a variety of ways and from different
points of view.
2. Order: The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought and come to a definite conclusion. It
should not consist of haphazard reflections put down anyhow. There should be not only unity of subject
but also unity of treatment. Hence the necessity for thinking out a line of thought before beginning to
write.
3.Brevity: School essays should not be long. The limit should be about three hundred words; though, of
course, there can be no strict rule as to length, which will depend a good deal on the nature of the subject.
But an essay should be a brief exercise, concisely expressed.
4. Style: In friendly letters, the style should be conversational - easy, natural and familiar; and in writing
such letters we may use colloquial terms which would be out of place in a book. But the style of an essay
must be more dignified and literary. Slang, colloquial terms and free and easy constructions are not proper
in an essay. At the same time it is a mistake to attempt any flights of fine writing. The language and
sentence construction should be simple, direct and natural. The secret of clear writing is clear thinking. "If
you clearly understand all about your matter, you will never want thoughts, and thoughts instantly become
words." This was said by Cobbett, a writer whose style is a model of clearness, simplicity and directness.
5. The Personal Touch: An essay should reveal the personal feelings and opinions of the writer. It should
have his individuality in it. Strictly speaking, as has been already said, an essay is a written composition
giving expression to one's personal ideas or opinions on a subject; and this personal touch should not be

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lost, or the essay will be colourless and devoid of individuality. So do not be afraid to express in your
essays your own views, and do not be content with repeating the opinions of others. Let there be a note of
sincerity in all that you write.
To sum up an essay must be a unity, treating in an orderly manner of one subject; it should be concisely
written and not too long, and the style should by simple, direct and clear; and it should have an
individuality, or show the personal touch of the writer. Three features are necessary in a good essay -
suitable subject-matter, proper arrangement, and adequate power of expression. Where all these three are
presents, the essay will be a success.
HINTS ON ESSAY-WRITING
1. General Preparation: One of the chief difficulties young people feel in essay-writing is lack of matter.
They do not easily find anything to say about a subject. This is natural, because their experience and
general reading are limited. But it may be remedied by reading, and by training the power of observation.
(a) Reading :- Bacon said, "Reading maketh a full man"; that is, a person who reads much and widely
stores his mind with a large variety of facts, thoughts, illustrations and general information. If you want to
write good essays you must acquire a love of reading-not simply reading stories for amusement, but
reading good books of history, travel, biography and science. Fill your mind with fine thoughts and
accurate information. By so doing you will become "a full man", and "a full man" can always find plenty
to say on most subjects.
(b) Observation: But all knowledge does not come from books. "We may learn much from the life
around us - what we see and hear and observe for ourselves. Keep eyes and ears open, and learn from your
own experience. Practise writing short descriptions of what you see in everyday life - the people you meet,
bits of scenery that strike you, buildings, street scenes, trees and flowers, hills and valleys, the habits of
animals and birds. Don't be contented with reading other people's description of such things, but see them
for yourself It is surprising what a lot may be learnt from personal observation.

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(c) Conversation: Books are written by men and women; and if we can learn from the books they write,
we can learn also from the words they say. Listen to people's conversation; get them to talk to you about
the things they know, and discuss subjects that interest you, with your friends. In this way, also, you may
learn much.
A writer reads, observes, and gets people to talk; and in these ways he is always enriching his mind with
ideas and knowledge.
2. Special Preparation: Now we come to the special preparation needed for writing an essay on some
particular subject; and the first thing we must do is to define the subject.
(a) Defining the Subject:It is very important that you should have a clear and accurate conception of the
subject of the essay before you attempt to write on it-what exactly it is and (equally important) what it is
not. Some subjects are so simple that you can scarcely make a mistake about them; but some want looking
into to define them exactly. For example, "The Uses of Computers". The subject is not how computers
work. Nor is it the history of computers. Yet some students, carelessly reading the subject, might easily
take up a large part of their essay with such topics. In a short school-essay there is no room for irrelevant
matter. You have to come to the point at once, and start away with the subject. The subject in this case is
the uses of computers in offices, in industries, in aircraft, in spacecraft, etc. It is, therefore, very necessary
that you should define the subject clearly in your own mind, or you may waste much time and paper in
writing on more or less irrelevant matters.
(b) Collecting materials: (i) Reading up the Subject :- When you have got a clear idea of your subject,
the next step will be to think of what you can say about it. Some subjects are so simple that a little
reflection should supply you with sufficient material for a short essay; but for others, special information
will be needed for which you may have to do some special reading. For instance, if you have to write
about some historical subjects, or give a description of some country you have seen, you will have to get
hold of some book and read the subject up. But in any case, you have to collect materials for your essay
before you can write it. In schools, class-discussions on the subject, under the guidance of the teacher, are

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very helpful in this stage of special preparation. In any case, do not attempt to write the essay before you
have given some time to thinking over what you can say on the subject. The common habit of beginning
to write down the first thing that comes into one's head, without knowing what is to come next, is fatal to
good essaywriting.
(ii) Collection: As you think over the subject, ideas, facts, and illustrations will pass through your mind.
But if you don't catch them as they come, you may forget them just when you want them. So, as you catch
birds and put them in a cage, catch and cage these fleeting thoughts by jotting them down on a piece of
paper just as they come into your head, without troubling yourself at this stage about their order or
suitability. You can examine the birds thus causht at vour leisure later. (To save time afterwards, and for
convenience of reference, number these notes as you jot them down.)
(iii) Selection: When you think you have collected enough material for your essay, or you can't think of
any more points, read over the notes you have jotted down to select the points most suitable for your
purpose. Examine at your leisure the birds in the cage, to see what they are worth. You may find that some
points are not very relevant or won't fit in; cross them out. You may find that some are mere repetitions of
others; and others may be simply illustrations to be brought under main heads. This process of selection
will probably suggest to you in a general way the line of thought you may follow in the essay.
(c) Logical Arrangement:Now you should be ready to decide on the line of thought of the essay, i.e., the
logical order in which you can arrange the points you have selected. The necessity of thus arranging your
thoughts according to some ordinary plan cannot be too strongly insisted upon. Without it, the essay will
probably be badly arranged, rambling, disproportioned, and full of repetitions and irrel-evancies.
(i) Making the outline: Bearing your subject definitely in your mind and with your purpose clearly before
you, sketch out a bare outline of the main heads, under which you will arrange your various materials in a
natural, logical and convincing order - from a brief Introduction to an effective Conclusion.
(ii) Filling in the Outline:Having thus mapped out the main points with which you are going to deal,
arrange the ideas you have collected each under its proper main head, rejecting all those not really relevant

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to your subject or which simply repeat other thoughts, and taking care that each really belongs to the
division in which you place it. You will now have a full outline, which is to be a guide to you in writing
the essay. But this is not the essay, but only its well-articulated skeleton. You must now clothe the
skeleton with flesh, and (most difficult of all) breathe into it the breath of life, before you can call your
production an essay.
EXAMPLE To illustrate this method of collecting materials and drawing up an outline, let us work out
together a simple example for an essay on, say, "The Elephant."
The subject is so simple, that we need not spend any time defining it. What is wanted is evidently a
Descriptive Essay, and all we have to do is to think of all we can say about the Elephant,
So we can set to work at once catching and caging our birds, or, in other words, jotting down, as they
come into our mind, all we can remember about elephants. The thoughts may come to us something like
this, and we will put them down and number them as they occur to us.
The Elephant
1. Largest of a]l animals.
2. Used in tiger-hunting.
3. Revengeful - story of tailor and elephant.
4. Its trunk and large ears.
5. Found in India and Africa - two kinds.
6. Its skill in piling logs.
7. Its great strength.

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8. In India, used in state processions.
9. How caught and tamed.
10. Mad elephants.
11. Elephant grass.
12. Its tusks - hunted for ivory.
13. Howdah and mahout.
14. Story of blind men and elephant.
15. In old times used in war.
16. Its intelligence.
17. Feeds on leaves and grass.
18. Decoy elephants, and Keddahs.
19. Can draw heavy loads.
Here is plenty of material; but it is in no order, and it will want a lot of sifting before it can be used. We
must examine all these details to see which are suitable and arrange them.
A little scrutiny will show that they may be arranged in groups under different headings.
Nos. 1, 4, 7, 12, and 16 are parts of a description of an elephant.
Nos. 2, 6, 8 (with 13), 12, 15 and 19 refer to different ways in which elephants are of use to man.

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Nos. 7 and 16 give reasons why the elephant is useful to man.
Nos. 9, 12 and 18 refer to the hunting of the elephant.
Nos. 5 and 17 mention the habitat and food of the elephant.
We have now classified all the points except Nos. 3, 10, 11 and 14. As to No. 11, it is of no use to us, as
the grass referred to gets its name simply from its great size. No. 14 would be too long; and besides the
story is not so much about the elephant as an illustration-of the fact that truth is many-sided. No. 10 might
be brought in incidentally, and perhaps taken along with No. 3; but we may have more than enough
material without them.
Already something like an outline is emerging from the disorderly mass of material. We see how we may
group the different items under such heads as Description, Habitat, Uses, Hunting, etc. soon some such
provisional bare outline as this may suggest itself:
BARE OUTLINE
1. Description.
2. Habitat and food.
3. How and why hunted.
4. Strength and intelligence, making elephant useful to man.
5. Its different uses.
Now we must fill in this bare outline by grouping the various points under the main heads. In doing this,
we may find occasion to modify or alter the bare outline, and additional details may suggest themselves.

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FULL OUTLINE
The Elephant 1. Description - (Nos. 1, 4, 7, 12.) Great size and strength; trunk (its uses); big ears; small
tail; tusks; speed.
2. Habitat - (Nos. 5 and 17.) Found in Africa and India; two kinds; lives in herds; feeds on leaves and
grass in jungles.
3. Of great use to man (because of its strength and intelligence) - (Nos. 7 and 16) Different uses : (a)
Draws heavy loads (No. 19). (b) Piles logs (No. 6). (c) Used in tiger-hunting (No. 2); howdah and mahout
(No. 13). (d) Used in battles in old days (No. 15). (e) Used in state processions in India (No. 8).
4. Elephant hunting - Why and how. (a) Hunted for ivory with elephant guns (No, 12). (b) Caught alive to
be tamed (No. 9) - Decoy elephants entice herd into Keddah(Uo. 18).
The outline will be quite long enough for an ordinary school essay; so we had better omit some of the
points we first jotted down and marked as doubtful, viz., Nos. 3, 10, 11 and 14. This illustrates the
necessity for selection.
When we come to write the essay, we must keep this outline before us as a guide; but, unless we are
required to do so, the outline should not appear in the fair copy of the essay. (In examinations, the outline
can be written on the left-hand page of the answerbook, on which scribbling is allowed.)
Types of Essays
This handout should help students become familiar and comfortable with the process of essay composition
through the introduction of some common essay genres.
This handout includes a brief introduction to the following 4 genres of essay writing:
a) Expository essays

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b) Descriptive essays
c) Narrative essays
d) Argumentative (Persuasive) essay
A) What is an expositoryessay?
The expository essay is a genre of essay that requires the student to investigate an idea, evaluate evidence,
expound on the idea, and set forth an argument concerning that idea in a clear and concise manner. This
can be accomplished through comparison and contrast, definition, example, the analysis of cause and
effect, etc.
Please note: This genre is commonly assigned as a tool for classroom evaluation and is often found in
various exam formats.
The structure of the expository essay is held together by the following.
A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.
It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the
assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an
effective or persuasive essay.
Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of
thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse.
Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Each paragraph should be limited to the exposition of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and
direction throughout the essay. What is more, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s

38
audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical
connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph.
Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).
Often times, students are required to write expository essays with little or no preparation; therefore, such
essays do not typically allow for a great deal of statistical or factual evidence.
A bit of creativity!
Though creativity and artfulness are not always associated with essay writing, it is an art form
nonetheless. Try not to get stuck on the formulaic nature of expository writing at the expense of writing
something interesting. Remember, though you may not be crafting the next great novel, you are
attempting to leave a lasting impression on the people evaluating your essay.
A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence
provided.
It is at this point of the essay that students will inevitably begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay
that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective
and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize and come to a
conclusion concerning the information presented in the body of the essay.
A complete argument
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to
discuss the cause of the Great Depression and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous
time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the
exposition in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those

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who lived through the Depression. Therefore, the expository essay must be complete, and logically so,
leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.
The five-paragraph Essay
A common method for writing an expository essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no
means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact,
the method consists of:
an introductory paragraph
three evidentiary body paragraphs
a conclusion
B) What is a descriptive essay?
The descriptive essay is a genre of essay that asks the student to describe something—object, person,
place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. This genre encourages the student’s ability to create a written
account of a particular experience. What is more, this genre allows for a great deal of artistic freedom (the
goal of which is to paint an image that is vivid and moving in the mind of the reader).
One might benefit from keeping in mind this simple maxim: If the reader is unable to clearly form an
impression of the thing that you are describing, try, try again!
Here are some guidelines for writing a descriptive essay.
Take time to brainstorm
If your instructor asks you to describe your favorite food, make sure that you jot down some ideas before
you begin describing it. For instance, if you choose pizza, you might start by writing down a few words:

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sauce, cheese, crust, pepperoni, sausage, spices, hot, melted, etc. Once you have written down some
words, you can begin by compiling descriptive lists for each one.
Use clear and concise language.
This means that words are chosen carefully, particularly for their relevancy in relation to that which you
are intending to describe.
Choose vivid language.
Why use horse when you can choose stallion? Why not use tempestuous instead of violent? Or why
not miserly in place of cheap? Such choices form a firmer image in the mind of the reader and often times
offer nuanced meanings that serve better one’s purpose.
Use your senses!
Remember, if you are describing something, you need to be appealing to the senses of the reader. Explain
how the thing smelled, felt, sounded, tasted, or looked. Embellish the moment with senses.
What were you thinking?!
If you can describe emotions or feelings related to your topic, you will connect with the reader on a deeper
level. Many have felt crushing loss in their lives, or ecstatic joy, or mild complacency. Tap into this
emotional reservoir in order to achieve your full descriptive potential.
Leave the reader with a clear impression.
One of your goals is to evoke a strong sense of familiarity and appreciation in the reader. If your reader
can walk away from the essay craving the very pizza you just described, you are on your way to writing
effective descriptive essays.

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Be organized!
It is easy to fall into an incoherent rambling of emotions and senses when writing a descriptive essay.
However, you must strive to present an organized and logical description if the reader is to come away
from the essay with a cogent sense of what it is you are attempting to describe.
C) What is a narrative essay?
When writing a narrative essay, one might think of it as telling a story. These essays are often anecdotal,
experiential, and personal—allowing students to express themselves in a creative and, quite often, moving
ways.
Here are some guidelines for writing a narrative essay.
If written as a story, the essay should include all the parts of a story.
This means that you must include an introduction, plot, characters, setting, climax, and conclusion.
When would a narrative essay not be written as a story?
A good example of this is when an instructor asks a student to write a book report. Obviously, this would
not necessarily follow the pattern of a story and would focus on providing an informative narrative for the
reader.
The essay should have a purpose.
Make a point! Think of this as the thesis of your story. If there is no point to what you are narrating, why
narrate it at all?
The essay should be written from a clear point of view.

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It is quite common for narrative essays to be written from the standpoint of the author; however, this is not
the sole perspective to be considered. Creativity in narrative essays often times manifests itself in the form
of authorial perspective.
Use clear and concise language throughout the essay.
Much like the descriptive essay, narrative essays are effective when the language is carefully, particularly,
and artfully chosen. Use specific language to evoke specific emotions and senses in the reader.
The use of the first person pronoun ‘I’ is welcomed.
Do not abuse this guideline! Though it is welcomed it is not necessary—nor should it be overused for lack
of clearer diction.
As always, be organized!
Have a clear introduction that sets the tone for the remainder of the essay. Do not leave the reader
guessing about the purpose of your narrative. Remember, you are in control of the essay, so guide it where
you desire (just make sure your audience can follow your lead).
D) What is an argumentative essay?
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect,
generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.
Please note: Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These
two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-
writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone
or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed
research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often
used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.

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Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously
published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student
collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the
student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that
she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the
amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound
reasoning.
The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.
A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.
In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a
general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important (exigence) or why readers should
care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis
statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student
does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive
essay.
Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of
thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions
should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next
section.
Body paragraphs that include evidential support.
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and
direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s

44
audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical
connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the
thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the
evidence supports the thesis (warrant).
However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the
topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an
argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these
differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis
might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.
Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).
The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support
the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal
evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when
collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay
will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not
support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather
to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.
A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence
provided.
It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will
leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and
logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information
presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review
your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in
light of your work.

45
A complete argument
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to
discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time,
there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in
the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived
through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no
doubt as to its intent or argument.
The five-paragraph essay
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however,
by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in
fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may
include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.
Longer argumentative essays
Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays
discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five
paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and
their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many
of these factors will be determined by the assignment.
Steps to Writing an Essay
For some, writing an essay is as simple as sitting down at their computer and beginning to type. But, a lot
more planning goes into writing an essay successfully. If you have never written an essay before, or if you
struggle with writing and want to improve your skills, it is a good idea to follow a number of important
steps in the essay writing process.

46
For example, to write an essay, you should generally:
 Decide what kind of essay to write
 Brainstorm your topic
 Research the topic
 Develop a thesis
 Outline your essay
 Write your essay
 Edit your writing to check spelling and grammar
While this sounds like a lot of steps to write a simple essay, if you follow them you will be able to write
more successful, clear and cohesive essays.
1. Choose the Type of Essay
The first step to writing an essay is to define what type of essay you are writing. There are four main
categories into which essays can be grouped:
 Narrative Essay: Tell a story or impart information about your subject in a straightforward, orderly
manner, like in a story.
 Persuasive Essay: Convince the reader about some point of view.
 Expository Essay: Explain to the reader how to do a given process. You could, for example, write
an expository essay with step-by-step instructions on how to make a peanut butter sandwich.
 Descriptive Essay: Focus on the details of what is going on. For example, if you want to write a
descriptive essay about your trip to the park, you would give great detail about what you experienced: how
the grass felt beneath your feet, what the park benches looked like, and anything else the reader would
need to feel as if he were there.
Knowing what kind of essay you are trying to write can help you decide on a topic and structure your
essay in the best way possible. Here are a few other types of essays:

47
 Argumentative Essay: Take a position on a controversial issue and present evidence in favor of
your position.
 Compare and Contrast Essay: Identify similarities and differences between two subjects that are,
typically, under the same umbrella.
 Problem Solution Essay: Describe a problem, convince the reader to care about the problem,
propose a solution, and be prepared to dismantle objections.
2. Brainstorm
You cannot write an essay unless you have an idea of what to write about. Brainstorming is the process in
which you come up with the essay topic. You need to simply sit and think of ideas during this phase.
 Write down everything that comes to mind as you can always narrow those topics down later.
 Use clustering or mind mapping to brainstorm and come up with an essay idea. This involves
writing your topic or idea in the center of the paper and creating bubbles (clouds or clusters) of related
ideas around it.
 Brainstorming can be a great way to develop a topic more deeply and to recognize connections
between various facets of your topic.
Once you have a list of possible topics, it's time to choose the best one that will answer the question posed
for your essay. You want to choose a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow.
If you are given an assignment to write a one-page essay, it would be far too much to write about "the
history of the US," since that could fill entire volumes of books. Instead, you could write about a specific
event within the history of the United States: perhaps signing the Declaration of Independence or when
Columbus discovered the Americas.
3. Researchthe Topic

48
Once you have done your brainstorming and chosen your topic, you may need to do some research to
write a good essay. Go to the library or search online for information about your topic. Interview people
who might be experts in the subject.
Keep your research organized so it will be easy for you to refer back to. This will also make it easier to
cite your sources when writing your final essay.
4. Developa Thesis
Your thesis statement is the main point of your essay. It is essentially one sentence that says what the
essay is about. For example, your thesis statement might be "Dogs are descended from wolves." You can
then use this as the basic premise to write your entire essay, remembering that all of the different points
throughout need to lead back to this one main thesis. You should usually state your thesis in your
introductory paragraph.
The thesis statement should be broad enough that you have enough to say about it, but not so broad that
you can't be thorough.
5. Outline Your Essay
The next step is to outline what you are going to write about. This means you want to essentially draw the
skeleton of your paper. Writing an outline can help to ensure your paper is logical, well organized and
flows properly.
Start by writing the thesis statement at the top, and then write a topic sentence for each paragraph below
that. This means you should know exactly what each of your paragraphs is going to be about before you
write them.

49
 Don't jumble too many ideas in each paragraph or the reader may become confused.
 Ensure you have transitions between paragraphs so the reader understands how the paper flows
from one idea to the next.
 Fill in supporting facts from your research under each paragraph. Make sure each paragraph ties
back to your thesis and creates a cohesive, understandable essay.
6. Write the Essay
Once you have an outline, it's time to start writing. Write based on the outline itself, fleshing out your
basic skeleton to create a whole, cohesive and clear essay.
You'll want to edit and re-read your essay, checking to make sure it sounds exactly the way you want it to.
Here are some things to remember:
 Revise for clarity, consistency, and structure.
 Support your thesis adequately with the information in your paragraphs. Each paragraph should
have its own topic sentence. This is the most important sentence in the paragraph that tells readers what
the rest of the paragraph will be about.
 Make sure everything flows together. As you move through the essay, transition words will be
paramount. Transition words are the glue that connects every paragraph together and prevents the essay
from sounding disjointed.
 Reread your introduction and conclusion. Will the reader walk away knowing exactly what your
paper was about?
In your introduction, it's important to include a hook. This is the line or line that will lure a reader in and
encourage them to want to learn more
7. Check Spelling and Grammar

50
Now the essay is written, but you're not quite done. Reread what you've written, looking out for mistakes
and typos.
 Revise for technical errors.
 Check for grammar, punctuation and spelling errors. You cannot always count on spell check to
recognize every spelling error. Sometimes, you can spell a word incorrectly but your misspelling will also
be a word, such as spelling "from" as "form."
 Another common area of concern is quotation marks. It's important to cite your sources with
accuracy and clarity.
 You might also want to consider the difference between quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.
Quoting is reserved for lines of text that are identical to an original piece of writing. Paraphrasing is
reserved for large sections of someone else's writing that you want to convey in your own words.
Summarizing puts the main points from someone else's text into your own words.
Presentation Skills
In the world of business, oral presentations are considered very important to communicate or deliver a
message. Companies or business firms arrange oral presentations to achieve different goals and objectives.
Sometimes these presentations are held to inform people about new products policies, or changes which
take place. Sometimes business organizations arrange presentations to persuade people. And sometimes
the purpose of a presentation is to entertain. To achieve these aims and objectives, the presenter must keep
some steps and requirements at the time of preparing and delivering an oral presentation.
Steps of Presentation

51
An activity that many of us view with concern is that of giving presentations. Few people feel entirely
comfortable standing in front of an audience to deliver a talk; even fewer actually enjoy it. In fact, a
survey carried out in America on common fears, suggested that fear of speaking in front of a group was
rated higher than fear of death (Rasberry & Lemoine, 1986)!
The reasons behind this are simple- people fear that public speaking may result in humiliation,
embarrassment or loss of dignity. Even the most adept speakers recognise feelings of fear in anticipation
of and during delivery of a presentation. However, the key to success is to utilise that fear and to recognise
it as a normal, healthy feeling. There is nothing wrong with feeling a level of anxiety and in fact, learning
to harness the energy it produces can help you to perform well.
It is also important to have realistic expectations of ourselves. Few of us possess the ability to perform
theatrically, or entertain large audiences with witty oneliners and clever tales. However, giving effective
presentations does not require these abilities. Clear, competent ‘plain speaking’ delivered with an air of
confidence will suffice (Wells, 1986).
Styles of presentation will be influenced by the context, but also by the person’s preferred way of doing it,
which may be developed over time. Remember however, the quality of many presentations is determined
by the work put in before you even begin to speak.
Dealing with Fears
As we have seen, a common fear is that the presentation will result in some sort of disaster, leaving us
feeling embarrassed or humiliated. Once explored however, these fears usually emerge as unrealistic and
our imagined ‘worst case scenario’ is either highly unlikely or not the catastrophic disaster that we think it
will be!
Techniques to resolve your anxiety include the following:
• Accept that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous or anxious to some extent.

52
• Prepare well.
• Be realistic. Are your standards too high? Take off the unnecessary pressure that comes from negative
and unrealistic thoughts by challenging them and seeking the more rational view. That worst case scenario
you imagine is highly improbable, and if a less than positive outcome does occur, it is unlikely to be the
end of the world!
• Use relaxation exercises such as deep breathing.
• Behave ‘as if’ you are feeling confident; i.e.
i. Enter the presentation in a very deliberate way,
ii. Rehearse your presentation, but also how you will Stand, set out your notes, change your slides etc,
iii. Use other non-verbal behaviours to appear confident (See section on delivery of the presentation).
(Adapted from Hartley & Bruckman, 2002).
Planning Your Presentation
It can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:
1. Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in giving the
presentation, and will begin to determine the content. Try to complete the following sentence:
‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will…..’
For example, ‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will see their role in interdisciplinary learning
more clearly, and will understand and be impressed with the value of providing practice placements in this
department.’

53
Decide whether the main purpose of your talk is to inform, persuade, motivate or change things. What do
you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?
Let’s discuss these three purposes in detail.
(a) To inform:An informative speech conveys facts, using clear examples and supporting material. It
aims to develop ideas, passes on information and shows how something works or can be done. Balance the
content and discussion to achieve an unbiased and objective presentation.
(b) To persuade: A persuasive speech establishes a need in the audience and explains the action
required to satisfy the need. A persuasive speech aims to influence the audience, to change their attitude or
bring them round to a particular point of view.
(c) To entertain: An entertaining speech uses a variety of techniques such as humour, anecdotes,
examples and quotations around a common theme so that the audience may enjoy the presentation. As a
speaker, you may decide to combine informative or persuasive elements with entertainment.
2. Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and who they are.
Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be realistic about this. Find out what
level of knowledge and experience those attending will have about your topic, so that you know where to
aim the material. Are the audience likely to have any preconceptions or misconceptions about the subject
that you need to address and put right? How might your audience use what you have to say?
3. Know your setting: Find out about the equipment – audiovisual aids etc. that will be available. Check
out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you decide on type of seating
arrangements), and other facilities.
4. Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk. For example, using the example given in point 1, the
theme or overall message might be:

54
‘Interdisciplinary learning opportunities are vital to student placements, form a valuable part of the work
of the department and each member of staff has an important role to play’.
5. Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my message across?
What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How much time will I need? Structure
your talk (see section on structuring your talk).
6. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a flipchart, whiteboard powerpoint, overhead
projector or data projector etc. to clarify important points and aid understanding? NB: Do not use too
many slides/points.
7. Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline.
8. Deliver your presentation (see sectionon delivery).
(Adapted from Gallagher et al, 1998)
NB. Often, presenters with little experience imagine that their audience is waiting for them to fail and that
the slightest mistake will result in derision. This just does not happen. Try to remember that the audience
is made up of people like you, who want you to do well. Most people will feel a sense of empathy with
you and will be understanding if you run into difficulties. Try to take off the unnecessary pressure that
comes from negative and unrealistic thoughts, by seeking the more rational view.
Structuring Your Presentation
This is perhaps one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear to both
you and your audience. Different authors advocate different formats for structuring a presentation, each of
which has their merits (Hartley and Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999). In
simplest terms however, a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.

55
Introduction : Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.
Ways of getting your audience’s attention include asking a rhetorical or intriguing question, providing a
relevant and interesting fact, giving an anecdote, outlining the valuable information you hope the audience
will gain from the presentation/telling them why they need to know the information, giving a quote or
making a dramatic prediction.
Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the subject matter of
your presentation by, for example, a statement of your main objective. It can also be helpful to present the
structure to your talk, by explaining briefly how you plan to proceed with it.
The Main Body: Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as
your audience needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you have
decided on the key points, organise them into a sequence that makes sense to you. This sequence may take
various forms, including being chronologically based, problem-solution based, simple-complex based etc.
(Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999). Explain and build your points using supporting
information and evidence.
Conclusion: There are various ways of concluding a presentation including changing the pace, using a
new visual aid, summarising your main points, drawing the conclusion and its importance, making
recommendations, asking for questions, getting feedback, asking for or recommending particular actions,
getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action, or ending by thanking
the group for their time and attention. Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are
coming to a close; eg. ‘And now, before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc. Try to end on a strong note
through the use of tactics detailed above. Research has long since shown that we tend to remember the
opening and closing parts of a presentation over the detail in the middle.
Delivering Your Presentation

56
Having prepared the presentation, the time comes of its delivery. It is a very important stage which
determines success or failure of a presentation. While delivering the presentation, the presenter must keep
the following points in his mind.
i) Confidence
Confidence is the most important thing which a person needs to face an audience. It helps you to win
people and to persuade them. While standing in front of an audience, confidence helps you to convey and
transmit your ideas in a proper way. This is key element through which you can convince people.
Confidence can be achieved through your grasp over the topic.
ii) Appearance
At the time of delivering a presentation, your appearance plays a vital role to make others believe that you
have the ability and something with you. A well and neatly dressed person leaves a good impact on the
mind of audience and he succeeds to get the attraction of the audience.
iii) Eye Contact
The importance of eye contact is paramount. By keeping a good eye-contact with your audience, you
leave a good impression. If you are shy and don’t look at the audience, they will not pay interest and
attention to your words.
iv) Voice Quality
The role of your voice is of great importance. Particularly at the time of delivering the presentation your
voice should not be too low or too high but you must be audible to everyone. Your tone should be cheerful
and it should never be unpleasant.
v) Posture

57
The way people stand or sit can say a lot of how they feel. The posture of a person projects his personality
as well as his inner strength or weakness. It leaves a strong impression on the minds of the listeners.
Speaker is along standing whereas a good number of people look at him.
vi) Word Rate
Our thinking capacity is much higher than our speaking capacity. While talking to people, a person should
not speak too fast or too slow. The accepted rate that our senses may accept easily is 80 to 160 words per
minute. The speaker must keep this figure in his mind.
vii) Pronunciation
How does a person pronounce the words? Pronunciation is a striking feature of an oral presentation. If you
don’t pronounce the words properly, your whole effort goes waste. Wrong pronunciation leaves a bad
impact on the audience, and develops a humorous and non serious atmosphere among the listeners.
Methods of Delivering Oral Presentation
There are four basic methods (sometimes called styles) of presenting a speech: manuscript, memorized,
extemporaneous, and impromptu. Each has a variety of uses in various forums of communication
I- Extemporaneous Method
II- Manuscript – Reading Method
III- Memorization Method
IV- Impromptu Method Methods of Delivery

58
Manuscript Style
The word manuscript is the clue to the style. The speech is written and the speaker reads it word for word
to the audience. Originally, it was done from the hand-written paper manuscript. Today the manuscript
style is common, but the paper is gone. Who reads the speech to the audience? Answer: Newscasters and
television personalities. In the old days, the manuscript was hand-lettered on cue cards, which were held
next to the camera lens. Then paper scrolls, like printed piano rolls were used, especially in Soap Operas.
Today, a special teleprompter (working like a periscope) is attached to the camera so the newscaster is
looking at the lens while reading.
Why is the manuscript important and in use? Precision. In the news- reporting industry, every fraction of a
second counts because broadcast time is costly. Also, the facts and names must be exact and accurate so
there is no room for error. Errors in reporting decrease the credibility of the news organization and the
newscaster.
The most regular use of the teleprompter for manuscript delivery is by the U.S. President. In fact, the
teleprompter, used by every President since Reagan, is called a “Presidential Teleprompter.” It is made of
two pieces of glass, each flanking the podium. They reflect the text from a monitor on the floor like a
periscope. The glass on both sides has the same text, and the speaker looks alternately from one glass to
the other as though looking at the audience through the glass. The audience cannot see the projected text.
The speeches a President gives will often reflect national policy, define international relationships, and the
press will scrutinize every syllable. It has to be more than brilliantly accurate; it has to be impeccably
phased. Professional writers and policy experts compose the speech; and the President delivers it as
though he not only wrote it, but made it up on the spot. That is the skill of a good politician, actor, or
speaker. Those who are not skilled using a teleprompter or manuscript will sound stilted and boring.
Try This! Manuscript Delivery

59
Watch the local or national 6 p.m., 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. newscasts on the same T.V. station. Make notes on
which news items repeat and how closely, or exactly, the phrasing is, even if different personalities are
presenting the same item.
Memorized Style
The memorized style of speaking is when the manuscript is committed to memory and recited to the
audience verbatim (word for word). In the days when elocution was taught, this was a typical approach. A
speech was a recitation. The Optimists Club (a national organization) used to have a “Oratory” contest for
high school students. Contestants wrote essays on a given theme, to create a speech at a specific time
length (e.g.: three minutes). The essay was memorized and the delivery was judged by 1) the quality of the
writing, 2) the accuracy with which it was recited; and 3) the precise length of time. Such contests seem
archaic by today’s more casual and somewhat less formal standards.
Where is a memorized delivery style still common? Due to copyright laws and licensing contract
agreements (other than scripts that are in the public domain), actors on stage are obligated to memorize the
script of the play and perform it verbatim exactly as written. It is typical for speakers on high school and
university speech and debate teams to memorize their competitive speeches. Corporate conventions often
use large LCD monitors on the front of the stage as teleprompters. This allows the speaker to move more
freely across the stage while sticking to his or her script. Some monologists (such as the stand-up comics
mentioned at the start of the chapter) also use a memorized delivery style. In all cases, they create the
impression that the speech is spontaneous. You might consider using the memorized delivery style if your
speech is relatively short, or you know you will have to deliver your speech repeatedly such as a tour
operator would.
Impromptu Style
Theoretically, an “impromptu” speech is “made up on the spot.” It is unprepared and unrehearsed. Often
ceremonial toasts, grace before meals, an acknowledgement, an introduction, offering thanks and so on,

60
fall into this category. While there are some occasions when a speech in those categories is actually
prepared (prepare your acceptance for the Academy Award BEFORE you are called!), there are many
occasions when there is little or no opportunity to prepare.
Impromptu speeches are generally short and are often given with little or no notice. Notes are rare and the
speaker generally looks directly at the audience. It would be presumptuous and arrogant to declare rules
for Impromptu Speaking. It is fair to explain that “impromptu” describes a range from absolutely no
preparation, to a modest amount of preparation (mostly thought) and rarely incorporates research or the
formalities of outlines and citations that more formal speeches would include.
An indelibly memorable example occurred to me when my siblings threw a surprise 10th anniversary
party for my Mom (Margaret) and our stepdad (Lidio). It was the third marriage for both of them, and they
were in their 60’s. As soon as the yells of “surprise” subsided, Lidio picked up his wine glass and
proposed a toast:
“I can’t believe this surprise! I don’t know what to say… um, Dino [his brother] when was that Yankee
game Dad took us to when we were kids? It was 4th of July, wasn’t it? 1939? And it was like it was
yesterday; and today reminds me of that day, when Lou Gehrig came out to the mound. He was slow, but
we were all cheering the ‘Pride of the Yankees.’ He wasn’t playing anymore, he was too sick, but he
looked around the crowd, and said ‘I’m the luckiest man alive.’ That’s how I feel with you all here today;
to celebrate our 10th anniversary. I’m here with you and with Margaret; and I’m the luckiest man alive.”
The speech was short, emotionally charged, wonderfully articulate, and absolutely unprepared. The speech
had one central emotionally charged message; simple, in words and phrasing, but complex by bringing an
image of great sentimentality to the occasion. He was able to react to the moment, and speak “from the
heart.”
In contrast, legendary magician Harry Houdini was often asked to perform for the amusement of his
fellow passengers when sailing to Europe. I always associate “impromptu” with the stories of Houdini’s
shipboard conjuring. Nothing was further from “impromptu.” The skill of the great magician was in

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