natural language processing slides

2. Cohesion:
• A close relationship based on
grammar or meaning between two
parts of a sentence
Example:
• Ali belongs to Peshawar. He is in BCS final semester.

3. Coherence:
• Coherence in linguistics is what
makes a text semantically
meaningful or makes sense.
• Example:
• Ali was a studious student and got 900 marks. His
percentage is 92.1%.
• I am a doctor. A doctor works in a hospital. A
hospital is a place where patients go.

4. Cohesive Devices:
• Smaller linguistic units such as words,
phrases, And clauses which is used to
construct a larger unit of text.
1. Reference,
2. Ellipsis,
3. Substitution,
4. Conjunction,
5. Lexical cohesion

5. 1#. Reference
• Reference is used to describe the
different ways in which entities-
things, people, events- are refered
to within texts and the entity that is
referred to is called the Referent.
Example:
Ali helped Akram. He was kind
Referent Reference

7. Exophoric Reference
• Refers to something out side of that text.
Examples are words such as there, that, or
here etc or extra knowledge .
Example:
• What is this.
Exaphoric Reference

8. Endophoric Reference
• Grammatical term used to describe forms
of reference made within any given text to
other elements within the text
Example:
• She gave the books, to John. He left the
room.
Endophoric Reference

9. Endophoric
• Relations are categorized as
• Anaphoric ( Reference back)
• Cataphoric (Reference
forward)

10. Anaphoric Reference
• Grammatical term used to describe a
linguistic
feature, which refers to a previously
mentioned element in any given text.
Example:
John helped Mary. He was kind
Anaphoric Reference

11. Cataphoric Reference
• Grammatical term used to describe a
linguistic feature, which refers forward to
another element in any given text.
Example:
Here are two examples of fossil fuels: Coal and wood
Cataphoric Reference

12. 2#. Substitution
• Substitution is the replacement of one item
by another.
OR
• Something that you use instead of the thing
you would usually use.
Example:
“Which ice-cream would you like?”
"I would like the pink one"
"one" is used instead of repeating "ice-cream."
So one is substitution .

13. 3#. Ellipsis
• The leaving out of words or phrases from
sentences where they are unnecessary
because they have already been referred or
Mentioned and the meaning can still be
understood.
Example:
He is rich, but his brother is not ᶲ.
Ellipsis

14. Types Of Ellipsis
e-clause:
• The clause from which the material is
missing is often referred to as the elliptical
clause (e-clause).
Example:
• He is rich, but his brother is not ᶲ.

15. A-CLAUSE
• The clause from which the
interpretation of the missing material is
derived from referent is called
antecedent clause (a-clause).
•Example:
• Ali is rich, but his brother is not ᶲ.

16. 4#. Conjunctions
• A word which joins words, phrases or
clauses together, such as but, and, when, so
that, never the less, or, that and unless etc.