Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task: Planning and Monitoring
Nathan S. Rose
Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
Lin Luo and Ellen Bialystok
York University
Alexandra Hering, Karen Lau, and Fergus I. M. Craik
Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
The Breakfast Task (Craik & Bialystok, 2006) is a computerized task that simulates the planning and
monitoring requirements involved in cooking breakfast, an everyday activity important for functional
independence. In Experiment 1, 28 adults performed the Breakfast Task, and outcome measures were
examined with principal component analysis to elucidate the structure of cognitive processes underlying
performance. Analyses revealed a 2-component structure which putatively captured global planning and
local monitoring abilities. In Experiment 2, the structure of Breakfast Task performance was cross-
validated on a new sample of 59 healthy older adults who also performed tests assessing working
memory, processing speed, inhibition, reasoning and prospective memory. Factor analyses showed that
the global planning component from the Breakfast Task was significantly correlated with individual
differences in executive functions but the local monitoring component was independent of such func-
tions. The Breakfast Task provides a fast, enjoyable, and lifelike assessment of complex everyday
planning and monitoring, and their underlying processes such as working memory and executive
functions.
Keywords: planning, monitoring, working memory, prospective memory, executive processes
The cognitive processes underlying many everyday activities,
such as running errands, shopping for groceries, or preparing a
meal, are surprisingly complex. To complete such activities it is
necessary to formulate a sequence of actions to achieve the goals,
store and update the action plan in working memory, and con-
sciously monitor and coordinate the execution of subtasks. These
aspects of cognitive processes are often grouped under the um-
brella term planning (Morris & Ward, 2005). Efficient planning
clearly depends on a multitude of cognitive processes, but the
relative contribution of specific processes is less clear, and their
apparent involvement may depend both on the particular task and
on how planning is assessed.
Laboratory studies investigating planning behaviour typically
adopt one of two general approaches (Ward & Morris, 2005). The
first approach is represented by tower tasks, such as Tower of
Hanoi and its variants (e.g., Owen, 2005), in which participants are
required to solve an unfamiliar problem following a set of restric-
tions. This approach has the advantage of experimental control, but
is often criticised for its limited applicability to everyday situa-
tions. The second approach, in contrast, uses tasks in which the
goals and contexts are common in everyday life. Examples of this
method include errand tasks and their variants (Burgess, Simons,
Coates, & Channon, 20.
Running
head:
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
1
Research Proposal
Ashleigh Barber
Australian Catholic University
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
2
Research Proposal
Background
Australia’s Ageing population
At present, Australia’s population is aged, as indicated by the large proportion of older
adult residents, and . This would at least be partially attributable to 100 years of progressively
greater longevities (Howat & Stoneham, 2011). With increasing longevity come several
challenges, for individuals and the health care sector if a number individuals later life is spent in
a state of morbidity. While normal ageing research is not without contention (e.g., about the
underpinning processes in cognitive decline), evidence suggests that the process of normal
ageing appears to involve a decline in such higher order cognitive domains as memory and
information processing REF, which are crucial for living autonomously. While many cognitive
functions are studied in relation to ageing, memory impairment topic of research in older
adulthood, as it comprises multiple cognitive abilities that are each fundamental to in successful
ageing.
The Ageing Process
A normal ageing trajectory human beings represents a latent, time-dependent biological
process (Moody & Sasser, 2014), which albeit it is not pathological, is often characterised by
functional degradation in one or more of physical, sensory, or cognitive abilities (Desjardins,
2012). Many adults experience some age-related cognitive decline (Deary et al., 2009), but the
explicit causal underpinnings of such changes are not robustly understood. The idea of negative
learning was proposed in Mahncke et al.’s (2006) framework, which argues that normal
cognitive changes stem from the combined effect of physical ageing of the cortices and negative
cortical plasticity (i.e., plasticity with negative consequences) (Mahncke, Bronstone, and
Merzenich, 2006).
Briefly outsine the scaffolding idea and negative cortical plasticity
Normal ageing
The maximum upper limit of human lifespan
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
3
The maximum human lifespan is indicated to have a fixed theoretical upper limit of 120 years
(Moody & Sasser, 2014). This upper bound has remained unchanged over time, while the life
expectancy continues to climb.
Promoting optimal development right across the lifespan is a crucial task of developmental
psychology
Compression of morbidity hypothesis
Discuss briefly in conjunction: max lifespan, compression of morbidity theory in relation
to health goals and the possibility of human beings, as prevention strategies implemented with
healthy participants fosters the healthy trajectory not the one of morbidity.
“With this concept of limit in mind, compression of morbidity is attractive because
delaying dysfunction would enhance the quality of life, extend life expectancy, and reduce health
care cost.
Using A Cognitive Analysis Grid to Inform Information Systems DesignPierre-Majorique Léger
Following our first conceptualization of a cognitive analysis grid (CA grid) for IS research in 2014, the CA grid was improved and tested in a proof of concept manner. The theory and application of this method are briefly explained, along with lessons learned from a first experiment. The next steps in the validation of this method include applying it to a wider group of naïve participants. This will allow to draw statistical parallels between the cognitive demand of the interface and the performance of the users based on their cognitive profile. Ultimately, this technique should be useful both in NeuroIS research and user experience (UX) tests to guide hypotheses and explain user’s performance.
Authors : Laurence Dumont, Gabrielle Chénier-Leduc, Élaine de Guise, Ana Ortiz de Guinea, Sylvain Sénécal and Pierre-Majorique Léger
Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits
Wendy Wood
Duke University
Leona Tam
Texas A&M University
Melissa Guerrero Witt
Duke University
The present research investigated the mechanisms guiding habitual behavior, specifically, the stimulus
cues that trigger habit performance. When usual contexts for performance change, habits cannot be cued
by recurring stimuli, and performance should be disrupted. Thus, the exercising, newspaper reading, and
TV watching habits of students transferring to a new university were found to survive the transfer only
when aspects of the performance context did not change (e.g., participants continued to read the paper
with others). In some cases, the disruption in habits also placed behavior under intentional control so that
participants acted on their current intentions. Changes in circumstances also affected the favorability of
intentions, but changes in intentions alone could not explain the disruption of habits. Furthermore,
regardless of whether contexts changed, nonhabitual behavior was guided by intentions.
Keywords: habit, behavior change, behavior prediction, stimulus cues, intention
Daily life is characterized by repetition. People repeat actions as
they fulfill everyday responsibilities at work and at home, interact
with others, and entertain themselves. Many everyday activities
not only are performed frequently but also are performed in stable
circumstances—meaning in particular locations, at specific times,
in particular moods, and with or without certain interaction part-
ners. Attesting to the regularity of everyday action, Quinn and
Wood’s (2004) diary investigation with a community sample re-
vealed that a full 47% of participants’ daily activities were enacted
almost daily and usually in the same location (see also Wood,
Quinn, & Kashy, 2002). The consistency of everyday life estab-
lishes habits, or behavioral dispositions to repeat well-practiced
actions given recurring circumstances.
Habits reflect the cognitive, neurological, and motivational
changes that occur when behavior is repeated (Wood, Quinn, &
Neal, 2005). With repetition, associations form in memory be-
tween the practiced action and typical performance times, loca-
tions, or other stable features of context. These associations guide
habitual action so that it is triggered automatically by stable cues.
As we explain, habit associations are represented in learning and
memory systems separately from intentions, or decisions to
achieve particular outcomes. Thus, walking into a dark room can
trigger reaching for the light switch without any decision to do so.
The separation of habitual and intentional guides to action is
consistent with the historically popular view that instrumental
behaviors initially are acquired as goal-directed acts but with
continued performance become less dependent on explicit goals
(e.g., Allport, 1937; James, 1890). In short, repetition induces a
shift in the motivational control of action from outcome ...
Running
head:
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
1
Research Proposal
Ashleigh Barber
Australian Catholic University
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
2
Research Proposal
Background
Australia’s Ageing population
At present, Australia’s population is aged, as indicated by the large proportion of older
adult residents, and . This would at least be partially attributable to 100 years of progressively
greater longevities (Howat & Stoneham, 2011). With increasing longevity come several
challenges, for individuals and the health care sector if a number individuals later life is spent in
a state of morbidity. While normal ageing research is not without contention (e.g., about the
underpinning processes in cognitive decline), evidence suggests that the process of normal
ageing appears to involve a decline in such higher order cognitive domains as memory and
information processing REF, which are crucial for living autonomously. While many cognitive
functions are studied in relation to ageing, memory impairment topic of research in older
adulthood, as it comprises multiple cognitive abilities that are each fundamental to in successful
ageing.
The Ageing Process
A normal ageing trajectory human beings represents a latent, time-dependent biological
process (Moody & Sasser, 2014), which albeit it is not pathological, is often characterised by
functional degradation in one or more of physical, sensory, or cognitive abilities (Desjardins,
2012). Many adults experience some age-related cognitive decline (Deary et al., 2009), but the
explicit causal underpinnings of such changes are not robustly understood. The idea of negative
learning was proposed in Mahncke et al.’s (2006) framework, which argues that normal
cognitive changes stem from the combined effect of physical ageing of the cortices and negative
cortical plasticity (i.e., plasticity with negative consequences) (Mahncke, Bronstone, and
Merzenich, 2006).
Briefly outsine the scaffolding idea and negative cortical plasticity
Normal ageing
The maximum upper limit of human lifespan
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL
3
The maximum human lifespan is indicated to have a fixed theoretical upper limit of 120 years
(Moody & Sasser, 2014). This upper bound has remained unchanged over time, while the life
expectancy continues to climb.
Promoting optimal development right across the lifespan is a crucial task of developmental
psychology
Compression of morbidity hypothesis
Discuss briefly in conjunction: max lifespan, compression of morbidity theory in relation
to health goals and the possibility of human beings, as prevention strategies implemented with
healthy participants fosters the healthy trajectory not the one of morbidity.
“With this concept of limit in mind, compression of morbidity is attractive because
delaying dysfunction would enhance the quality of life, extend life expectancy, and reduce health
care cost.
Using A Cognitive Analysis Grid to Inform Information Systems DesignPierre-Majorique Léger
Following our first conceptualization of a cognitive analysis grid (CA grid) for IS research in 2014, the CA grid was improved and tested in a proof of concept manner. The theory and application of this method are briefly explained, along with lessons learned from a first experiment. The next steps in the validation of this method include applying it to a wider group of naïve participants. This will allow to draw statistical parallels between the cognitive demand of the interface and the performance of the users based on their cognitive profile. Ultimately, this technique should be useful both in NeuroIS research and user experience (UX) tests to guide hypotheses and explain user’s performance.
Authors : Laurence Dumont, Gabrielle Chénier-Leduc, Élaine de Guise, Ana Ortiz de Guinea, Sylvain Sénécal and Pierre-Majorique Léger
Changing Circumstances, Disrupting Habits
Wendy Wood
Duke University
Leona Tam
Texas A&M University
Melissa Guerrero Witt
Duke University
The present research investigated the mechanisms guiding habitual behavior, specifically, the stimulus
cues that trigger habit performance. When usual contexts for performance change, habits cannot be cued
by recurring stimuli, and performance should be disrupted. Thus, the exercising, newspaper reading, and
TV watching habits of students transferring to a new university were found to survive the transfer only
when aspects of the performance context did not change (e.g., participants continued to read the paper
with others). In some cases, the disruption in habits also placed behavior under intentional control so that
participants acted on their current intentions. Changes in circumstances also affected the favorability of
intentions, but changes in intentions alone could not explain the disruption of habits. Furthermore,
regardless of whether contexts changed, nonhabitual behavior was guided by intentions.
Keywords: habit, behavior change, behavior prediction, stimulus cues, intention
Daily life is characterized by repetition. People repeat actions as
they fulfill everyday responsibilities at work and at home, interact
with others, and entertain themselves. Many everyday activities
not only are performed frequently but also are performed in stable
circumstances—meaning in particular locations, at specific times,
in particular moods, and with or without certain interaction part-
ners. Attesting to the regularity of everyday action, Quinn and
Wood’s (2004) diary investigation with a community sample re-
vealed that a full 47% of participants’ daily activities were enacted
almost daily and usually in the same location (see also Wood,
Quinn, & Kashy, 2002). The consistency of everyday life estab-
lishes habits, or behavioral dispositions to repeat well-practiced
actions given recurring circumstances.
Habits reflect the cognitive, neurological, and motivational
changes that occur when behavior is repeated (Wood, Quinn, &
Neal, 2005). With repetition, associations form in memory be-
tween the practiced action and typical performance times, loca-
tions, or other stable features of context. These associations guide
habitual action so that it is triggered automatically by stable cues.
As we explain, habit associations are represented in learning and
memory systems separately from intentions, or decisions to
achieve particular outcomes. Thus, walking into a dark room can
trigger reaching for the light switch without any decision to do so.
The separation of habitual and intentional guides to action is
consistent with the historically popular view that instrumental
behaviors initially are acquired as goal-directed acts but with
continued performance become less dependent on explicit goals
(e.g., Allport, 1937; James, 1890). In short, repetition induces a
shift in the motivational control of action from outcome ...
The use of cardiac orienting responses as an early and scalable biomarker of ...BARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
Abstract
Background
Considered the leading cause of developmental disabilities worldwide, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
(FASD) are a global health problem. To take advantage of neural plasticity, early identification of affected
infants is critical. The cardiac orienting response (COR) has been shown to be sensitive to the effects of
prenatal alcohol exposure and is an inexpensive, easy to administer assessment tool. The purpose of this
study was to evaluate the COR effectiveness in assessing individual risk of developmental delay.
Role of Executive Functioning and Literary Reapproach for Measures of Intelli...inventionjournals
Over the years, Intelligence has been a crucial part in Psychological practices. Basic operational definition behind construct of Intelligence proposed by Wechsler (1944), was to act purposefully (Plan and control behaviors) and thinking rationally (organize and direct behavior). This operational definition was afterwards incorporated in measures for intelligence but as these measures were first aligned with academics, a major part of basic definition got overlooked. Previously Intelligence was divided in two major components that are Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence but resent Literary Reaproach was intended to enlighten the basic purpose of Intelligence measures and to highlight the overlooked components of Intelligence. These components are then further aligned with behavioral interpretations of Executive functions. It is proposed that alliance of Fluid Intelligence with Executive Functioning can bring pronounced change in clinical practices and change the bookish views of Intelligence into a functional approach.
1. AbstractResearchers function in a complex environment and.docxSONU61709
1. Abstract
Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.
Citation
Time Management Strategies for Research Productivity
Jo-Ana D. Chase, Robert Topp, Carol E. Smith, Marlene Z. Cohen, Nancy Fahrenwald, Julie J. Zerwic, Lazelle E. Benefield, Cindy M. Anderson, Vicki S. Conn
Western Journal of Nursing Research
Vol 35, Issue 2, pp. 155 - 176
First published date: August-06-2012
2. This study describes the process of constructing proxy variables from recorded log data within a Learning Management System (LMS), which represents adult learners' time management strategies in an online course. Based on previous research, three variables of total login time, login frequency, and regularity of login interval were selected as candidates from the data set, along with a guideline for manipulating the log data. According to the results of multiple regression analysis, which was conducted to determine whether the suggested variables actually predict learning performance, (ir)regularity of the login interval was correlative with and predictive of learning performance. As indicated in the previous research, the regularity of learning is a strong indicator for explaining learners' consistent endeavors and awareness of learning. This study, which was primarily based on theoretical evidence, demonstrated the possibility of using learning analytics to address a learner's specific competence in an online learning environment. Implications for the learning analytics field seeking a pedagogical theory-driven approach are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] . Copyright of Journal of Educational Technology & Society is the property of International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users ...
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Item and AssociativeReco.docxtodd701
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Item and Associative
Recognition Memory
Roger Ratcliff and Hans P. A. Van Dongen
The Ohio State University and Washington State University
Sleep deprivation adversely affects the ability to perform cognitive tasks, but theories range from
predicting an overall decline in cognitive functioning because of reduced stability in attentional networks
to specific deficits in various cognitive domains or processes. We measured the effects of sleep
deprivation on two memory tasks, item recognition (“was this word in the list studied”) and associative
recognition (“were these two words studied in the same pair”). These tasks test memory for information
encoded a few minutes earlier and so do not address effects of sleep deprivation on working memory or
consolidation after sleep. A diffusion model was used to decompose accuracy and response time
distributions to produce parameter estimates of components of cognitive processing. The model assumes
that over time, noisy evidence from the task stimulus is accumulated to one of two decision criteria, and
parameters governing this process are extracted and interpreted in terms of distinct cognitive processes.
Results showed that sleep deprivation reduces drift rate (evidence used in the decision process), with little
effect on the other components of the decision process. These results contrast with the effects of aging,
which show little decline in item recognition but large declines in associative recognition. The results
suggest that sleep deprivation degrades the quality of information stored in memory and that this may
occur through degraded attentional processes.
Keywords: diffusion model, reaction time and accuracy, total sleep deprivation, drift rate,
recognition memory
Sleep deprivation has profound effects on human brain func-
tioning. For example, sleep deprivation is associated with large-
scale changes in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodu-
laters, such as dopamine (Volkow et al., 2009) and adenosine
(Urry & Landolt, 2014). Sleep deprivation leads to significant
shifts in the dominant frequencies in the waking EEG (Torsvall &
Akerstedt, 1987). Furthermore, it changes evoked potentials, in-
dicative of altered stimulus processing (Corsi-Cabrera, Arce, Del
Río-Portilla, Pérez-Garci, & Guevara, 1999). Not surprisingly,
sleep deprivation also has substantial impact on cognitive perfor-
mance (Jackson & Van Dongen, 2011). Yet, the effects of sleep
deprivation on different cognitive tasks are ostensibly widely
different (Lim & Dinges, 2010). Cognitive, pharmacological, neu-
roimaging, and genetic approaches have been put to use in the
search for underlying mechanisms. This search has been ham-
pered, however, by reliance on methods not specifically designed
to test the effects of sleep deprivation and use of global outcome
measures (Whitney & Hinson, 2010).
Recently there has been a focus on experimental and modeling
studies of component processes .
Task switchingStephen MonsellSchool of Psychology Univer.docxjosies1
Task switching
Stephen Monsell
School of Psychology University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK
Everyday life requires frequent shifts between cognitive
tasks. Research reviewed in this article probes the con-
trol processes that reconfigure mental resources for a
change of task by requiring subjects to switch fre-
quently among a small set of simple tasks. Subjects’
responses are substantially slower and, usually, more
error-prone immediately after a task switch. This
‘switch cost’ is reduced, but not eliminated, by an
opportunity for preparation. It seems to result from
both transient and long-term carry-over of ‘task-set’
activation and inhibition as well as time consumed by
task-set reconfiguration processes. Neuroimaging
studies of task switching have revealed extra activation
in numerous brain regions when subjects prepare to
change tasks and when they perform a changed task,
but we cannot yet separate ‘controlling’ from ‘con-
trolled’ regions.
A professor sits at a computer, attempting to write a paper.
The phone rings, he answers. It’s an administrator,
demanding a completed ‘module review form’. The pro-
fessor sighs, thinks for a moment, scans the desk for the
form, locates it, picks it up and walks down the hall to the
administrator’s office, exchanging greetings with a col-
league on the way. Each cognitive task in this quotidian
sequence – sentence-composing, phone-answering, con-
versation, episodic retrieval, visual search, reaching and
grasping, navigation, social exchange – requires an
appropriate configuration of mental resources, a pro-
cedural ‘schema’ [1] or ‘task-set’ [2]. The task performed
at each point is triggered partly by external stimuli (the
phone’s ring and the located form). But each stimulus
affords alternative tasks: the form could also be thrown in
the bin or made into a paper plane. We exercise intentional
‘executive’ control to select and implement the task-set,
or the combination of task-sets, that are appropriate to
our dominant goals [3], resisting temptations to satisfy
other goals.
Goals and tasks can be described at multiple grains or
levels of abstraction [4]: the same action can be described
as both ‘putting a piece of toast in one’s mouth’ and
‘maintaining an adequate supply of nutrients’. I focus here
on the relatively microscopic level, at which a ‘task’
consists of producing an appropriate action (e.g. conveying
to mouth) in response to a stimulus (e.g. toast in a
particular context). One question is: how are appropriate
task-sets selected and implemented? Another is: to what
extent can we enable a changed task-set in advance of the
relevant stimulus – as suggested by the term ‘set’?
Introspection indicates that we can, for example, set
ourselves appropriately to name a pictured object aloud
without knowing what object we are about to see. When an
object then appears, it is identified, its name is retrieved
and speech emerges without a further ‘act of intention’: the
sequence.
The effects of skipping breakfast on the academic performance Hafizah R
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of skipping breakfast on the academic performance among students in Centre for Foundation Studies, International Islamic University Malaysia (CFS IIUM). This study has provided the answers for the research question like, what is the importance of breakfast, what is the trend of skipping breakfast among students and what are the effects of skipping breakfast, what is the relationship of the effect skipping breakfast on the academic performance among student in CFS IIUM and do the students aware with the importance of breakfast. Primary data were collected by randomly distributing questionnaires to 20 students in CFS IIUM in the morning. A simple IQ test also attached in the questionnaire to test their focus and memory on the morning they answer the questionnaire. The result of this study is, 55% of the respondents skipped the breakfast and 20% from the breakfast skipper failed the test compare to breakfast eater, only 15%. Since the IQ test was about to examined their focus and memory, it can be analysed that breakfast skipper has lack focus and weak memory as many of them fail the test. As a conclusion, students who skip the breakfast tend to have a weak memory and lack focus. This can affect their academic performance as memory and focus is very important to excel in the study. Skipping breakfast gives negative effects to the academic performance.
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L EThe Brief Attachment Scale (B.docxvannagoforth
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E
The Brief Attachment Scale (BAS‐16): A short measure of
infant attachment
Tim Cadman1 | Jay Belsky2 | Richard M. Pasco Fearon1
1 Department of Clinical, Educational and
Health Psychology, University College
London, London, UK
2 Department of Human Ecology, University of
California, Davis, California
Correspondence
Pasco Fearon, Department of Clinical,
Educational and Health Psychology, University
College London, WC1E 7HB WC1E 6BT, UK.
Email: p[email protected]
Abstract
Background: Insecure attachment in infancy is associated with a range of later
socioemotional problems; therefore, it is important to identify at‐risk children so that
support can be provided. However, there are currently no well‐validated brief mea-
sures of infant attachment. The aim of this study is to create a brief version of the
Attachment Q‐Sort (AQS), one of the gold‐standard measures of attachment.
Method: Data was used from the National Institute of Child Health and Develop-
ment Study of Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1,364). The factor structure
of the AQS was explored, and Item Response Theory was used to select a reduced
number of items. Convergent validity of the shortened measure was assessed through
associations with the Strange Situation Procedure. Correlations with sensitivity,
externalising, and social competence were also examined.
Results: The Brief Attachment Scale (BAS‐16) was created consisting of two scales
of eight items, relating to (a) harmonious interaction with the caregiver and (b) prox-
imity‐seeking behaviours. The BAS‐16 showed comparable convergent, discriminant,
and concurrent validity to the full AQS.
Conclusion: This brief version of the AQS shows potential as a screening measure
for insecure attachment in infancy. Further development and validation is required
in separate samples.
KEYWORDS
AQS, attachment, Attachment Q‐Set, Attachment Q‐Sort, Brief Attachment Scale, Strange
Situation Procedure; SSP; TAS‐45
1 | INTRODUCTION
A growing body of research chronicles the negative long‐term
socioemotional correlates of insecure and disorganised attachment in
childhood (Fearon, Bakermans‐Kranenburg, Van IJzendoorn, Lapsley,
& Roisman, 2010; Groh et al., 2014; Groh, Roisman, van IJzendoorn,
Bakermans‐Kranenburg, & Fearon, 2012). Furthermore, there is an
evidence that interventions to improve parental sensitivity are effec-
tive at fostering security, especially in high‐risk populations
(Bakermans‐Kranenburg, Van Ijzendoorn, & Juffer, 2005). Accordingly,
it is important to identify infants at risk of insecure attachment at an
early age so that interventions can be offered (Allen, 2011).
At present, there are two “gold‐standard” measures of attachment
for infants—the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP; Ainsworth, Blehar,
& Waters, 1978; Main & Solomon, 1990) and the Attachment Q‐Sort
(AQS; Waters & Deane, 1985). The SSP is a laboratory procedure
involving two brief pe ...
Attentional Changes During Implicit Learning Signal Validity .docxrock73
Attentional Changes During Implicit Learning: Signal Validity Protects a
Target Stimulus From the Attentional Blink
Evan J. Livesey, Irina M. Harris, and Justin A. Harris
University of Sydney
Participants in 2 experiments performed 2 simultaneous tasks: one, a dual-target detection task within a
rapid sequence of target and distractor letters; the other, a cued reaction time task requiring participants
to make a cued left–right response immediately after each letter sequence. Under these rapid visual
presentation conditions, it is usually difficult to identify the 2nd target when it is presented in temporal
proximity of the 1st target—a phenomenon known as the attentional blink. However, here participants
showed an advantage for detecting a target presented during the attentional blink if that target predicted
which response cue would appear at the end of the trial. Participants also showed faster reaction times
on trials with a predictive target. Both of these effects were independent of conscious knowledge of the
target–response contingencies assessed by postexperiment questionnaires. The results suggest that
implicit learning of the association between a predictive target and its outcome can automatically
facilitate target recognition during the attentional blink and therefore shed new light on the relationship
between associative learning and attentional mechanisms.
Keywords: predictive learning, attentional blink, signal validity, implicit learning
Learning a relationship between a conditioned stimulus (CS)
and an outcome that it predicts is often assumed to be accompanied
by changes in attention. Some models of associative learning (e.g.,
Kruschke, 2001; Mackintosh, 1975) propose that changes in atten-
tion are dictated by the relative utility of the various predictive
signals that one might extract from presented stimuli: Those fea-
tures that are relatively good predictors of an outcome attract
attention, whereas relatively poor predictors lose attention. Learn-
ing about the signal validity of a CS, the extent to which it signals
the occurrence of a relevant outcome, thus results in a change in
the processing of that CS during later learning episodes. This idea
has received support from a wide variety of animal and human
experiments (see Le Pelley, 2004, for a recent review). Much of
the evidence in support of these proposed attentional changes has
emerged from studies of predictive or discrimination learning, in
which the principal behavioral measure is the rate at which dis-
crimination accuracy increases or associations between events are
conditioned. Such evidence cannot easily separate changes in
learning rate from other changes in performance. Thus evidence
for a particular attentional mechanism, or even a general theoret-
ical principle about attention and learning, has typically been
indirect and inferred through observations that the learned behav-
ior is generally consistent with the predictions of these models.
Partly ...
Coding NotesImproving Diagnosis By Jacquie zegan, CCS, w.docxmary772
Coding Notes
Improving
Diagnosis
By Jacquie zegan, CCS, wC
Specificity in ICD-IO Coding
VALID ICD-IO-CM/PCS (ICD-IO) codes have been required for claims reporting since October 1, 2015. But ICD-IO diagnosis coding to the correct level of specificity—a more recent requirement—continues to be a problem for many in the healthcare industry. While diagnosis code specificity has always been the goal, providers were granted a reprieve in order to facilitate implementation of ICD-IO. For the first 12 months of ICD-IO use, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) promised that Medicare review contractors would not deny claims "based solely on the specificity of the ICD-IO diagnosis code as long as the physician/practitioner used a valid code from the right family."l Commonly referred to as the "grace period," this flexibility was intended to help providers implement the ICD-IO-CM code set and was never intended to continue on in perpetuity. In fact, this CMS-granted grace period expired on October 1, 2016.2
Unfortunately, nonspecific documentation and coding persists. This is an ongoing problem, even though the official guidelines for coding and reporting require coding to the highest degree of specificity. Third-party payers are making payment determinations based on the specificity of reported codes, and payment reform efforts are formulating policies based on coded data. The significance of overreporting unspecified diagnosis codes cannot be understated. In the short term, it will increase claim denials, and in the long term it may adversely impact emerging payment models.3•4 Calculating and monitoring unspecified diagnosis code rates is critical to successfully leverage specificity
44/Journal of AHIMA April 18
in the ICD-IO-CM code set.
An ICD-IO-CM code is considered unspecified if either of the terms "unspecified" or "NOS" are used in the code description. The unspecified diagnosis code rate is calculated by dividing the number of unspecified diagnosis codes by the total number of diagnosis codes assigned. Health information management (HIM) professionals should be tracking and trending unspecified diagnosis code rates across the continuum of care.5
Acceptable use of Unspecified Diagnosis Codes Unspecified diagnosis codes have acceptable, even necessary, uses. The unspecified code rate is not an error rate, but rather an indicator of the quality of clinical documentation and a qualitative measure of coder performance and coding results. Even CMS explicitly recognizes that unspecified codes are sometimes necessary. "When sufficient clinical information is not known or available about a particular health condition to assign a more specific code, it is acceptable to report the appropriate unspecified code."6 It's also important that coding professionals use good judgment to avoid unnecessary queries for clarification of unspecified diagnoses. The official coding guidelines provide explicit guidance for appropriate uses of unspec.
CNL-521 Topic 3 Vargas Case StudyBob and Elizabeth arrive.docxmary772
CNL-521 Topic 3: Vargas Case Study
Bob and Elizabeth arrive together for the third session. As planned, you remind the couple that the goal of today’s session is to gather information about their families of origin. Bob begins by telling you about his older sister, Katie, who is 36 and lives nearby with her three children. Katie’s husband, Steve, died suddenly last year at the age of 40 when the car he was driving hit a block wall. Elizabeth speculates that Steve was intoxicated at the time, but Bob vehemently denies this allegation. He warns Elizabeth to “never again” suggest alcohol was involved. You note Bob’s strong response and learn that his own biological father, whom his mother divorced when Bob was 3 and Katie was 5, had been an alcoholic. When asked about his father, Bob says, “His name is Tim, and I haven’t seen him since the divorce.” Bob shares that he only remembers frequently hiding under the bed with Katie to stay safe from his violent rages. He adds that 5 years after the divorce, his mother, Linda, married Noel who has been “the only dad I’ve ever known.” He insists that his sister married “a devout Christian who never touched alcohol” and attributed the 3:00 a.m. tragedy to fatigue. He adds that a few days before the accident, Katie had complained to him that her husband had been working many late nights and “just wasn’t himself.” Bob speaks fondly of his sister and confirms that they have always been “very close.”
From Elizabeth, who is 31 years old, you learn that she was adopted by her parents, Rita and Gary, who were in their late 40s at the time. They were first generation immigrants who had no family in the United States. Their biological daughter, Susan, had died 10 years earlier after Rita accidentally ran over the 5 year old while backing out of the driveway. Elizabeth surmises that her mother never fully recovered from this traumatic incident and remained distant and withdrawn throughout Elizabeth’s life. Elizabeth describes her father, Gary, as “a hard worker, smart, and always serious.” She shares that most of her family memories were of times spent with her dad in his study, surrounded by books. She states, “He could find the answer to all of my questions in one his many books.” Elizabeth describes herself as the “quiet, bookish type” and attributes her love for books to her father. Like her father in his study, Elizabeth remembers spending most of her adolescence alone in her room, reading, so she would not upset her mother. Looking back, Elizabeth tells you she recognizes her mother’s struggle with depression, “but as a kid, I thought it was me.”
You comment on the vastly different childhood experiences and normalize the potential for relationship challenges under these circumstances. Acknowledging the differences, Elizabeth remarks that Bob’s relationship with his family was one of the things that she was attracted to early in their relationship. Bob agrees with her and comments that Katie and Elizabeth.
More Related Content
Similar to Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task Planning and Monito.docx
The use of cardiac orienting responses as an early and scalable biomarker of ...BARRY STANLEY 2 fasd
Abstract
Background
Considered the leading cause of developmental disabilities worldwide, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
(FASD) are a global health problem. To take advantage of neural plasticity, early identification of affected
infants is critical. The cardiac orienting response (COR) has been shown to be sensitive to the effects of
prenatal alcohol exposure and is an inexpensive, easy to administer assessment tool. The purpose of this
study was to evaluate the COR effectiveness in assessing individual risk of developmental delay.
Role of Executive Functioning and Literary Reapproach for Measures of Intelli...inventionjournals
Over the years, Intelligence has been a crucial part in Psychological practices. Basic operational definition behind construct of Intelligence proposed by Wechsler (1944), was to act purposefully (Plan and control behaviors) and thinking rationally (organize and direct behavior). This operational definition was afterwards incorporated in measures for intelligence but as these measures were first aligned with academics, a major part of basic definition got overlooked. Previously Intelligence was divided in two major components that are Crystalized and Fluid Intelligence but resent Literary Reaproach was intended to enlighten the basic purpose of Intelligence measures and to highlight the overlooked components of Intelligence. These components are then further aligned with behavioral interpretations of Executive functions. It is proposed that alliance of Fluid Intelligence with Executive Functioning can bring pronounced change in clinical practices and change the bookish views of Intelligence into a functional approach.
1. AbstractResearchers function in a complex environment and.docxSONU61709
1. Abstract
Researchers function in a complex environment and carry multiple role responsibilities. This environment is prone to various distractions that can derail productivity and decrease efficiency. Effective time management allows researchers to maintain focus on their work, contributing to research productivity. Thus, improving time management skills is essential to developing and sustaining a successful program of research. This article presents time management strategies addressing behaviors surrounding time assessment, planning, and monitoring. Herein, the Western Journal of Nursing Research editorial board recommends strategies to enhance time management, including setting realistic goals, prioritizing, and optimizing planning. Involving a team, problem-solving barriers, and early management of potential distractions can facilitate maintaining focus on a research program. Continually evaluating the effectiveness of time management strategies allows researchers to identify areas of improvement and recognize progress.
Citation
Time Management Strategies for Research Productivity
Jo-Ana D. Chase, Robert Topp, Carol E. Smith, Marlene Z. Cohen, Nancy Fahrenwald, Julie J. Zerwic, Lazelle E. Benefield, Cindy M. Anderson, Vicki S. Conn
Western Journal of Nursing Research
Vol 35, Issue 2, pp. 155 - 176
First published date: August-06-2012
2. This study describes the process of constructing proxy variables from recorded log data within a Learning Management System (LMS), which represents adult learners' time management strategies in an online course. Based on previous research, three variables of total login time, login frequency, and regularity of login interval were selected as candidates from the data set, along with a guideline for manipulating the log data. According to the results of multiple regression analysis, which was conducted to determine whether the suggested variables actually predict learning performance, (ir)regularity of the login interval was correlative with and predictive of learning performance. As indicated in the previous research, the regularity of learning is a strong indicator for explaining learners' consistent endeavors and awareness of learning. This study, which was primarily based on theoretical evidence, demonstrated the possibility of using learning analytics to address a learner's specific competence in an online learning environment. Implications for the learning analytics field seeking a pedagogical theory-driven approach are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] . Copyright of Journal of Educational Technology & Society is the property of International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users ...
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Item and AssociativeReco.docxtodd701
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Item and Associative
Recognition Memory
Roger Ratcliff and Hans P. A. Van Dongen
The Ohio State University and Washington State University
Sleep deprivation adversely affects the ability to perform cognitive tasks, but theories range from
predicting an overall decline in cognitive functioning because of reduced stability in attentional networks
to specific deficits in various cognitive domains or processes. We measured the effects of sleep
deprivation on two memory tasks, item recognition (“was this word in the list studied”) and associative
recognition (“were these two words studied in the same pair”). These tasks test memory for information
encoded a few minutes earlier and so do not address effects of sleep deprivation on working memory or
consolidation after sleep. A diffusion model was used to decompose accuracy and response time
distributions to produce parameter estimates of components of cognitive processing. The model assumes
that over time, noisy evidence from the task stimulus is accumulated to one of two decision criteria, and
parameters governing this process are extracted and interpreted in terms of distinct cognitive processes.
Results showed that sleep deprivation reduces drift rate (evidence used in the decision process), with little
effect on the other components of the decision process. These results contrast with the effects of aging,
which show little decline in item recognition but large declines in associative recognition. The results
suggest that sleep deprivation degrades the quality of information stored in memory and that this may
occur through degraded attentional processes.
Keywords: diffusion model, reaction time and accuracy, total sleep deprivation, drift rate,
recognition memory
Sleep deprivation has profound effects on human brain func-
tioning. For example, sleep deprivation is associated with large-
scale changes in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodu-
laters, such as dopamine (Volkow et al., 2009) and adenosine
(Urry & Landolt, 2014). Sleep deprivation leads to significant
shifts in the dominant frequencies in the waking EEG (Torsvall &
Akerstedt, 1987). Furthermore, it changes evoked potentials, in-
dicative of altered stimulus processing (Corsi-Cabrera, Arce, Del
Río-Portilla, Pérez-Garci, & Guevara, 1999). Not surprisingly,
sleep deprivation also has substantial impact on cognitive perfor-
mance (Jackson & Van Dongen, 2011). Yet, the effects of sleep
deprivation on different cognitive tasks are ostensibly widely
different (Lim & Dinges, 2010). Cognitive, pharmacological, neu-
roimaging, and genetic approaches have been put to use in the
search for underlying mechanisms. This search has been ham-
pered, however, by reliance on methods not specifically designed
to test the effects of sleep deprivation and use of global outcome
measures (Whitney & Hinson, 2010).
Recently there has been a focus on experimental and modeling
studies of component processes .
Task switchingStephen MonsellSchool of Psychology Univer.docxjosies1
Task switching
Stephen Monsell
School of Psychology University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK
Everyday life requires frequent shifts between cognitive
tasks. Research reviewed in this article probes the con-
trol processes that reconfigure mental resources for a
change of task by requiring subjects to switch fre-
quently among a small set of simple tasks. Subjects’
responses are substantially slower and, usually, more
error-prone immediately after a task switch. This
‘switch cost’ is reduced, but not eliminated, by an
opportunity for preparation. It seems to result from
both transient and long-term carry-over of ‘task-set’
activation and inhibition as well as time consumed by
task-set reconfiguration processes. Neuroimaging
studies of task switching have revealed extra activation
in numerous brain regions when subjects prepare to
change tasks and when they perform a changed task,
but we cannot yet separate ‘controlling’ from ‘con-
trolled’ regions.
A professor sits at a computer, attempting to write a paper.
The phone rings, he answers. It’s an administrator,
demanding a completed ‘module review form’. The pro-
fessor sighs, thinks for a moment, scans the desk for the
form, locates it, picks it up and walks down the hall to the
administrator’s office, exchanging greetings with a col-
league on the way. Each cognitive task in this quotidian
sequence – sentence-composing, phone-answering, con-
versation, episodic retrieval, visual search, reaching and
grasping, navigation, social exchange – requires an
appropriate configuration of mental resources, a pro-
cedural ‘schema’ [1] or ‘task-set’ [2]. The task performed
at each point is triggered partly by external stimuli (the
phone’s ring and the located form). But each stimulus
affords alternative tasks: the form could also be thrown in
the bin or made into a paper plane. We exercise intentional
‘executive’ control to select and implement the task-set,
or the combination of task-sets, that are appropriate to
our dominant goals [3], resisting temptations to satisfy
other goals.
Goals and tasks can be described at multiple grains or
levels of abstraction [4]: the same action can be described
as both ‘putting a piece of toast in one’s mouth’ and
‘maintaining an adequate supply of nutrients’. I focus here
on the relatively microscopic level, at which a ‘task’
consists of producing an appropriate action (e.g. conveying
to mouth) in response to a stimulus (e.g. toast in a
particular context). One question is: how are appropriate
task-sets selected and implemented? Another is: to what
extent can we enable a changed task-set in advance of the
relevant stimulus – as suggested by the term ‘set’?
Introspection indicates that we can, for example, set
ourselves appropriately to name a pictured object aloud
without knowing what object we are about to see. When an
object then appears, it is identified, its name is retrieved
and speech emerges without a further ‘act of intention’: the
sequence.
The effects of skipping breakfast on the academic performance Hafizah R
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of skipping breakfast on the academic performance among students in Centre for Foundation Studies, International Islamic University Malaysia (CFS IIUM). This study has provided the answers for the research question like, what is the importance of breakfast, what is the trend of skipping breakfast among students and what are the effects of skipping breakfast, what is the relationship of the effect skipping breakfast on the academic performance among student in CFS IIUM and do the students aware with the importance of breakfast. Primary data were collected by randomly distributing questionnaires to 20 students in CFS IIUM in the morning. A simple IQ test also attached in the questionnaire to test their focus and memory on the morning they answer the questionnaire. The result of this study is, 55% of the respondents skipped the breakfast and 20% from the breakfast skipper failed the test compare to breakfast eater, only 15%. Since the IQ test was about to examined their focus and memory, it can be analysed that breakfast skipper has lack focus and weak memory as many of them fail the test. As a conclusion, students who skip the breakfast tend to have a weak memory and lack focus. This can affect their academic performance as memory and focus is very important to excel in the study. Skipping breakfast gives negative effects to the academic performance.
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L EThe Brief Attachment Scale (B.docxvannagoforth
O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E
The Brief Attachment Scale (BAS‐16): A short measure of
infant attachment
Tim Cadman1 | Jay Belsky2 | Richard M. Pasco Fearon1
1 Department of Clinical, Educational and
Health Psychology, University College
London, London, UK
2 Department of Human Ecology, University of
California, Davis, California
Correspondence
Pasco Fearon, Department of Clinical,
Educational and Health Psychology, University
College London, WC1E 7HB WC1E 6BT, UK.
Email: p[email protected]
Abstract
Background: Insecure attachment in infancy is associated with a range of later
socioemotional problems; therefore, it is important to identify at‐risk children so that
support can be provided. However, there are currently no well‐validated brief mea-
sures of infant attachment. The aim of this study is to create a brief version of the
Attachment Q‐Sort (AQS), one of the gold‐standard measures of attachment.
Method: Data was used from the National Institute of Child Health and Develop-
ment Study of Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1,364). The factor structure
of the AQS was explored, and Item Response Theory was used to select a reduced
number of items. Convergent validity of the shortened measure was assessed through
associations with the Strange Situation Procedure. Correlations with sensitivity,
externalising, and social competence were also examined.
Results: The Brief Attachment Scale (BAS‐16) was created consisting of two scales
of eight items, relating to (a) harmonious interaction with the caregiver and (b) prox-
imity‐seeking behaviours. The BAS‐16 showed comparable convergent, discriminant,
and concurrent validity to the full AQS.
Conclusion: This brief version of the AQS shows potential as a screening measure
for insecure attachment in infancy. Further development and validation is required
in separate samples.
KEYWORDS
AQS, attachment, Attachment Q‐Set, Attachment Q‐Sort, Brief Attachment Scale, Strange
Situation Procedure; SSP; TAS‐45
1 | INTRODUCTION
A growing body of research chronicles the negative long‐term
socioemotional correlates of insecure and disorganised attachment in
childhood (Fearon, Bakermans‐Kranenburg, Van IJzendoorn, Lapsley,
& Roisman, 2010; Groh et al., 2014; Groh, Roisman, van IJzendoorn,
Bakermans‐Kranenburg, & Fearon, 2012). Furthermore, there is an
evidence that interventions to improve parental sensitivity are effec-
tive at fostering security, especially in high‐risk populations
(Bakermans‐Kranenburg, Van Ijzendoorn, & Juffer, 2005). Accordingly,
it is important to identify infants at risk of insecure attachment at an
early age so that interventions can be offered (Allen, 2011).
At present, there are two “gold‐standard” measures of attachment
for infants—the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP; Ainsworth, Blehar,
& Waters, 1978; Main & Solomon, 1990) and the Attachment Q‐Sort
(AQS; Waters & Deane, 1985). The SSP is a laboratory procedure
involving two brief pe ...
Attentional Changes During Implicit Learning Signal Validity .docxrock73
Attentional Changes During Implicit Learning: Signal Validity Protects a
Target Stimulus From the Attentional Blink
Evan J. Livesey, Irina M. Harris, and Justin A. Harris
University of Sydney
Participants in 2 experiments performed 2 simultaneous tasks: one, a dual-target detection task within a
rapid sequence of target and distractor letters; the other, a cued reaction time task requiring participants
to make a cued left–right response immediately after each letter sequence. Under these rapid visual
presentation conditions, it is usually difficult to identify the 2nd target when it is presented in temporal
proximity of the 1st target—a phenomenon known as the attentional blink. However, here participants
showed an advantage for detecting a target presented during the attentional blink if that target predicted
which response cue would appear at the end of the trial. Participants also showed faster reaction times
on trials with a predictive target. Both of these effects were independent of conscious knowledge of the
target–response contingencies assessed by postexperiment questionnaires. The results suggest that
implicit learning of the association between a predictive target and its outcome can automatically
facilitate target recognition during the attentional blink and therefore shed new light on the relationship
between associative learning and attentional mechanisms.
Keywords: predictive learning, attentional blink, signal validity, implicit learning
Learning a relationship between a conditioned stimulus (CS)
and an outcome that it predicts is often assumed to be accompanied
by changes in attention. Some models of associative learning (e.g.,
Kruschke, 2001; Mackintosh, 1975) propose that changes in atten-
tion are dictated by the relative utility of the various predictive
signals that one might extract from presented stimuli: Those fea-
tures that are relatively good predictors of an outcome attract
attention, whereas relatively poor predictors lose attention. Learn-
ing about the signal validity of a CS, the extent to which it signals
the occurrence of a relevant outcome, thus results in a change in
the processing of that CS during later learning episodes. This idea
has received support from a wide variety of animal and human
experiments (see Le Pelley, 2004, for a recent review). Much of
the evidence in support of these proposed attentional changes has
emerged from studies of predictive or discrimination learning, in
which the principal behavioral measure is the rate at which dis-
crimination accuracy increases or associations between events are
conditioned. Such evidence cannot easily separate changes in
learning rate from other changes in performance. Thus evidence
for a particular attentional mechanism, or even a general theoret-
ical principle about attention and learning, has typically been
indirect and inferred through observations that the learned behav-
ior is generally consistent with the predictions of these models.
Partly ...
Coding NotesImproving Diagnosis By Jacquie zegan, CCS, w.docxmary772
Coding Notes
Improving
Diagnosis
By Jacquie zegan, CCS, wC
Specificity in ICD-IO Coding
VALID ICD-IO-CM/PCS (ICD-IO) codes have been required for claims reporting since October 1, 2015. But ICD-IO diagnosis coding to the correct level of specificity—a more recent requirement—continues to be a problem for many in the healthcare industry. While diagnosis code specificity has always been the goal, providers were granted a reprieve in order to facilitate implementation of ICD-IO. For the first 12 months of ICD-IO use, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) promised that Medicare review contractors would not deny claims "based solely on the specificity of the ICD-IO diagnosis code as long as the physician/practitioner used a valid code from the right family."l Commonly referred to as the "grace period," this flexibility was intended to help providers implement the ICD-IO-CM code set and was never intended to continue on in perpetuity. In fact, this CMS-granted grace period expired on October 1, 2016.2
Unfortunately, nonspecific documentation and coding persists. This is an ongoing problem, even though the official guidelines for coding and reporting require coding to the highest degree of specificity. Third-party payers are making payment determinations based on the specificity of reported codes, and payment reform efforts are formulating policies based on coded data. The significance of overreporting unspecified diagnosis codes cannot be understated. In the short term, it will increase claim denials, and in the long term it may adversely impact emerging payment models.3•4 Calculating and monitoring unspecified diagnosis code rates is critical to successfully leverage specificity
44/Journal of AHIMA April 18
in the ICD-IO-CM code set.
An ICD-IO-CM code is considered unspecified if either of the terms "unspecified" or "NOS" are used in the code description. The unspecified diagnosis code rate is calculated by dividing the number of unspecified diagnosis codes by the total number of diagnosis codes assigned. Health information management (HIM) professionals should be tracking and trending unspecified diagnosis code rates across the continuum of care.5
Acceptable use of Unspecified Diagnosis Codes Unspecified diagnosis codes have acceptable, even necessary, uses. The unspecified code rate is not an error rate, but rather an indicator of the quality of clinical documentation and a qualitative measure of coder performance and coding results. Even CMS explicitly recognizes that unspecified codes are sometimes necessary. "When sufficient clinical information is not known or available about a particular health condition to assign a more specific code, it is acceptable to report the appropriate unspecified code."6 It's also important that coding professionals use good judgment to avoid unnecessary queries for clarification of unspecified diagnoses. The official coding guidelines provide explicit guidance for appropriate uses of unspec.
CNL-521 Topic 3 Vargas Case StudyBob and Elizabeth arrive.docxmary772
CNL-521 Topic 3: Vargas Case Study
Bob and Elizabeth arrive together for the third session. As planned, you remind the couple that the goal of today’s session is to gather information about their families of origin. Bob begins by telling you about his older sister, Katie, who is 36 and lives nearby with her three children. Katie’s husband, Steve, died suddenly last year at the age of 40 when the car he was driving hit a block wall. Elizabeth speculates that Steve was intoxicated at the time, but Bob vehemently denies this allegation. He warns Elizabeth to “never again” suggest alcohol was involved. You note Bob’s strong response and learn that his own biological father, whom his mother divorced when Bob was 3 and Katie was 5, had been an alcoholic. When asked about his father, Bob says, “His name is Tim, and I haven’t seen him since the divorce.” Bob shares that he only remembers frequently hiding under the bed with Katie to stay safe from his violent rages. He adds that 5 years after the divorce, his mother, Linda, married Noel who has been “the only dad I’ve ever known.” He insists that his sister married “a devout Christian who never touched alcohol” and attributed the 3:00 a.m. tragedy to fatigue. He adds that a few days before the accident, Katie had complained to him that her husband had been working many late nights and “just wasn’t himself.” Bob speaks fondly of his sister and confirms that they have always been “very close.”
From Elizabeth, who is 31 years old, you learn that she was adopted by her parents, Rita and Gary, who were in their late 40s at the time. They were first generation immigrants who had no family in the United States. Their biological daughter, Susan, had died 10 years earlier after Rita accidentally ran over the 5 year old while backing out of the driveway. Elizabeth surmises that her mother never fully recovered from this traumatic incident and remained distant and withdrawn throughout Elizabeth’s life. Elizabeth describes her father, Gary, as “a hard worker, smart, and always serious.” She shares that most of her family memories were of times spent with her dad in his study, surrounded by books. She states, “He could find the answer to all of my questions in one his many books.” Elizabeth describes herself as the “quiet, bookish type” and attributes her love for books to her father. Like her father in his study, Elizabeth remembers spending most of her adolescence alone in her room, reading, so she would not upset her mother. Looking back, Elizabeth tells you she recognizes her mother’s struggle with depression, “but as a kid, I thought it was me.”
You comment on the vastly different childhood experiences and normalize the potential for relationship challenges under these circumstances. Acknowledging the differences, Elizabeth remarks that Bob’s relationship with his family was one of the things that she was attracted to early in their relationship. Bob agrees with her and comments that Katie and Elizabeth.
Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book[WLO .docxmary772
Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book
[WLO: 1] [CLO: 1]
Prior to beginning work on this assignment,
Review Chapters 6, 7, and 9 of your text.
Review the cognition and language development milestones from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on the web page
Basic Information (Links to an external site.)
.
Identify one age-group that you will discuss:
Infancy: Birth to 12 months
Toddler: 1 to 3 years
Early childhood: 4 to 8 years
Review and download the
Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book Template.
The purpose of this assignment is to creatively demonstrate an understanding of developmental milestones as they pertain to cognition and language development.
Part 1:
Based on the required resources above, create a children’s picture book using
StoryJumper (Links to an external site.)
that tells a story about a child’s typical day. Your story must incorporate at least four cognitive and four language development milestones for the age-group you have selected. Your story can be about a fictional child or can be based on a real child. Watch the video,
StoryJumper Tutorial (Links to an external site.)
, for assistance in using StoryJumper.
To complete this assignment, you must
Create a children’s picture book using StoryJumper.
Identify at least four cognitive development milestones appropriate to the age-group selected.
Distinguish at least four language development milestones appropriate to the age-group selected.
Discuss a typical day appropriate to the age-group selected.
Part 2:
Open the
Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book Template
and complete the following items:
Provide the link to the StoryJumper picture book you created in Part 1.
Indicate which age-group your picture book will discuss.
List at least four cognitive development milestones that are included in your picture book.
List at least four language development milestones that are included in your picture book.
Submit your Word document to Waypoint.
The Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book:
Must be eight to 10 pages of text in length (not including title page, images, and references page) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s
APA Style (Links to an external site.)
Must include a separate title page with the following:
Title of picture book
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must document any information used from sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s
Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)
Must include a separate references page or slide that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. See the
Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.)
resource in the Ashford Writing Center for specifications.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory.
Codes of (un)dress and gender constructs from the Greek to t.docxmary772
Codes of (un)dress and gender constructs
from the Greek to the Roman world
he
By 6th c. BC: Greek male and female dress codes firmly established
Archaic kouros
and kore statues
demonstrate how
the body was
used in the
naturalization of
gender
constructs
The naked male
body in the
classical period:
the Doryphoros as
a heroic athlete-
warrior citizen
Male sexuality: conditions by the patriarchal ideology of
domination, it restricted sexual expression and freedom
in homosexual
relations
and heterosexual
relations
In the classical
period,
while the naked
male body was
idealized and
heroized,
the female naked
body was always
sexualized and
objectified.
Centauromachy (late 5th c.
Bassae): the Greek female is
defenseless and sexualized
(must be defended by Greek
men).
Gendered
nakedness in
mythological
scenes:
the Greek
male is
always
heroized
Amazonomachy (4th c.
Halikarnassos): the non-
Greek female is wild and
sexualized (must be
dominated by Greek men).
Aphrodite (Roman Venus): at first fully dressed
The gradual disrobing of Aphrodite in monumental statues, late 5th to
4th c. BC (Roman copies)
“Venus Genetrix”,
original late 5th c. BC
“Venus of Capua”,
original 4th c. BC
Aphrodite of Knidos,
original 4th c. BC
Late 5th c. onwards: minor goddesses were also represented sexualized in
statues, but only Aphrodite appeared entirely naked by the 4th c. BC.
Nike (Victory), late
5th c., Olympia.
Aphrodite of Knidos by
Praxiteles, 4th c. (Roman copy)
Aphrodite “Beautiful
Buttocks”, Roman
copy (Greek ca. 300).
Doryphoros and
Aphrodite of Knidos
(Knidia or Knidian
Aphrodite), Roman
copies.
What main
differences do you
observe?
Was her nakedness
really threatening to
patriarchy (Andrew
Stewart)?
Or, in what ways
was her nakedness
aligned with
patriarchal ideology?
Could she have been
empowering for
women?
The traditional visual
presence of a divine
statue at the far end of
a rectangular temple
was very different
(Olympian Zeus)
Aphrodite of Knidos was displayed in an unusual temple (round plan), so as to
be seen from all sides, like a beautiful object.
The original
Aphrodite of
Knidos is lost.
Numerous
Roman copies
of the Knidian
Aphrodite exist
(with variations
in details).
“Colonna
Venus” Vatican
Museums.
“Ludovisi
Venus”,
Palazzo
Altemps, Rome
(only the torso
is ancient, the
rest is 17th-c,
restoration.)
Capitoline Venus, Rome
Medici Venus, Florence
Variations on the
“Venus pudica” type,
Greek Hellenistic
originals, Roman
copies.
Are they more modest
or also more shamed?
Latin pudore: modesty,
chastity, shame.
Greek aidos: shame,
modesty
(aidion=vagina)
There is no male “pudicus”
type in Greco-Roman
sculpture.
These unequal gender
constructs are still around
today,
to the detriment of all of us!
There is no male
“pudicus” type in Greco-
Roman sculpture.
An effec.
Coding Assignment 3CSC 330 Advanced Data Structures, Spri.docxmary772
Coding Assignment 3
CSC 330: Advanced Data Structures, Spring 2019
Released Monday, April 15, 2019
Due on Canvas on Wednesday, May 1, at 11:59pm
Overview
In this assignment, you’ll implement another variant of a height-balancing tree known as a
splay tree. The assignment will also give you an opportunity to work with Java inheritance;
in particular, the base code that you’ll amend is structured so that your SplayTree class
extends from an abstract class called HeightBalancingTree, which gives a general template
for how a height-balancing tree should be defined.
As always, please carefully read the entire write-up before you begin coding your submission.
Splay Trees
As mentioned above, a splay tree is another example of a height-balancing tree — a binary
search tree that, upon either an insertion or deletion, modifies the tree through a sequence
of rotations in order to reduce the overall height of the tree.
However, splay trees differ from the other height-balancing trees we’ve seen (AVL trees,
red-black trees) in terms of the type of guarantees that they provide. In particular, recall
that both AVL trees and red-black trees maintain the property that after any insertion or
deletion, the height of the tree is O(log n), where n is the number of elements in the tree.
Splay trees unfortunately do not provide this (fairly strong) guarantee; namely, it is possible
for the height of a splay tree to become greater than O(log n) over a sequence of insertions
and deletions.
Instead, splay trees provide a slightly weaker (though still meaningful) guarantee known as
an amortized bound, which is essentially just a bound on the average time of a single opera-
tion over the course of several operations. In the context of splay trees, one can show that
over the course of, say, n insertions to build a tree with n elements, the average time of each
of these operations is O(log n) (but again, keeping in mind it is possible for any single one
of these operations to take much longer than this).
Showing this guarantee is beyond the scope of this course (although the details of the analy-
sis can be found in your textbook). Instead, in this assignment, we will just be in interested
1
r splay:
N
root
root
2
1
1
2
l splay:
N
1
2
rr splay:
N
N
N
ll splay:
rl splay:
1
2
N
lr splay:
Figure 1: Illustration of the six possible cases for on a given step of a splay operation.
in writing an implementation of a splay tree in Java that is structured using inheritance.
Splay Tree Insertions and Deletions
To insert or delete an element from the tree, splay trees use the same approach as the other
height-balancing trees we’ve discussed in class — first we insert/deletion an element using
standard BST procedures, and then perform a “height-fixing” procedure that rebalances the
tree. Thus, what distinguishes each of these height-balancing trees from one another is how
they define their height-fixing procedures.
To fix the tree after both inser.
CodeZipButtonDemo.javaCodeZipButtonDemo.java Demonstrate a p.docxmary772
CodeZip/ButtonDemo.javaCodeZip/ButtonDemo.java// Demonstrate a push button and handle action events.
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.*;
publicclassButtonDemoimplementsActionListener{
JLabel jlab;
JTextField jtf;
ButtonDemo(){
// Create a new JFrame container.
JFrame jfrm =newJFrame("A Button Example");
// Specify FlowLayout for the layout manager.
jfrm.setLayout(newFlowLayout());
// Give the frame an initial size.
jfrm.setSize(220,90);
// Terminate the program when the user closes the application.
jfrm.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
// Make two buttons.
JButton jbtnUp =newJButton("Up");
JButton jbtnDown =newJButton("Down");
// Create a text field.
jtf =newJTextField(10);
// Add action listeners.
jbtnUp.addActionListener(this);
jbtnDown.addActionListener(this);
// Add the buttons to the content pane.
jfrm.add(jbtnUp);
jfrm.add(jbtnDown);
jfrm.add(jtf);
// Create a label.
jlab =newJLabel("Press a button.");
// Add the label to the frame.
jfrm.add(jlab);
// Display the frame.
jfrm.setVisible(true);
}
// Handle button events.
publicvoid actionPerformed(ActionEvent ae){
if(ae.getActionCommand().equals("Up")){
jlab.setText("You pressed Up.");
FileClock clock1=newFileClock(jtf);
Thread thread1=newThread(clock1);
thread1.start();
}
else
jlab.setText("You pressed down. ");
}
publicstaticvoid main(String args[]){
// Create the frame on the event dispatching thread.
SwingUtilities.invokeLater(newRunnable(){
publicvoid run(){
newButtonDemo();
}
});
}
}
CodeZip/CBDemo.javaCodeZip/CBDemo.java// Demonstrate check boxes.
import java.awt.*;
import java.awt.event.*;
import javax.swing.*;
publicclassCBDemoimplementsItemListener{
JLabel jlabSelected;
JLabel jlabChanged;
JCheckBox jcbAlpha;
JCheckBox jcbBeta;
JCheckBox jcbGamma;
CBDemo(){
// Create a new JFrame container.
JFrame jfrm =newJFrame("Demonstrate Check Boxes");
// Specify FlowLayout for the layout manager.
jfrm.setLayout(newFlowLayout());
// Give the frame an initial size.
jfrm.setSize(280,120);
// Terminate the program when the user closes the application.
jfrm.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
// Create empty labels.
jlabSelected =newJLabel("");
jlabChanged =newJLabel("");
// Make check boxes.
jcbAlpha =newJCheckBox("Alpha");
jcbBeta =newJCheckBox("Beta");
jcbGamma =newJCheckBox("Gamma");
// Events generated by the check boxes
// are handled in common by the itemStateChanged()
// method implemented by CBDemo.
jcbAlpha.addItemListener(this);
jcbBeta.addItemListener(this);
jcbGamma.addItemListener(this);
// Add checkboxes and labels to the content pane.
jfrm.add(jcbAlpha);
jfrm.add(jcbBeta);
jfrm.add(jcbGamma);
jfrm.add(jlabChanged);
jfrm.add(jlabSelected);
// Display the frame.
jfrm.setVisible(true);
}
// This is the handler for the check boxes..
CoevolutionOver the ages, many species have become irremediably .docxmary772
Coevolution
Over the ages, many species have become irremediably linked. Whether in the context of an arms race or cooperation to conquer new ecosystems, they have no choice but to evolve together . According to Paul Ehrlich and Peter Raven, who introduced the term in 1964, "Coevolution is the evolution of two or more entities caused by the action between these entities of reciprocal selective factors. Organizations must therefore influence each other (Thompson, 1989). Coevolution relates to this week’s theme by the how natural selection affects the ecosystem. The book compares coevolution to an ecological arm race (Bensel & Turk, 2014). One example is a case of bats as stated in the book and their use of echolocation to be able to find insects. One insect that tries to outsmart it is a tiger moth which blocks out and jam’s the bats signal with a high frequency clicks and the bat fly’s erratically to confuse the moth. This is important in adaptation and of evolution of any new biological species. There are two kinds of interactions that happen that can lead to competitive coevolution. One interactions is predation in which one organism kills another organism. The second one is parasitism in which one organism benefits by damaging but not killing another organism.
This term affects living things and the physical world because if we didn’t have the natural selection all our ecosystem who would be extinct including human beings. Many recent studies state that environmental changes have messed with the balance between interacting species and leading to their extinction. When we use the three models of coevolution such as competition, predation, mutualism in organizing and synthesizing ways to modify species interaction when there is climate change in favoring one species over another. Coevolution reduces the effects of climate change and leads to lowering chances in extinction. By getting an understanding of our nature of coevolution in how they interact with different species and our communities interact and respond to the changing climate.
We as human kind must take action and not let our natural system and ecosystem suffer because of our greed for economic growth (Cairns, 2007). We must also be careful of our matriac consumption and forget about ecological and sustainability ethics. (Cairns, 2007). Humans need to take action to better take care of our ecosystem and environment. Morowitz (1992) stated in this journal, “Sustained life is a property of an ecological system rather than a single organism or species.” There are no species that can exist without the ecological life support system even humans (Cairns, 2007). We need to put more effort in taking care of our environment by creating more organizations in getting our communities involved. In achieving sustainability they must guide through ecological and sustainability ethics. There are many challenges that will come but with achieving sustainable use of our planet our environment will .
Coding Component (50)Weve provided you with an implementation .docxmary772
Coding Component (50%)
We've provided you with an implementation of an unbalanced binary search tree. The tree implements an ordered dynamic set over a generic comparable type T. Supported operations include insertion, deletion, min, max, and testing whether a value is in the set (via the exists method). Because it's a set, duplicates are not allowed, and the insert operation will not insert a value if it is already present.
We have implemented the BST operations in a recursive style. For example, inserting a value into a tree recurses down the tree seeking the correct place to add a new leaf. Each recursive call returns the root of the subtree on which it was called, after making any modifications needed to the subtree to perform the insertion. Deletion is implemented similarly.
Your job is to add the functionality needed to keep the tree balanced using the AVL property. In particular, you will need to
· augment the tree to maintain the height of each of its subtrees, as discussed in Studio;
· compute the balance at the root of a subtree (which is the height of the root's left subtree minus that of its right subtree);
· implement the AVL rebalancing operation, along with the supporting rotation operations; and
· call the height maintenance and rebalancing operations at the appropriate times during insertion and deletion.
Code Outline
There are two main source code files you need to consider, both in the avl package:
· TreeNode.java implements a class TreeNode that represents a node of a binary search tree. It holds a value (the key of the node) along with child and parent pointers. It has a height data member that is currently not used for anything. You should not modify this file, but you need to understand its contents.
· AVLTree.java implements an ordered set as a binary search tree made out of TreeNode objects.
The AVLTree class provides an interface that includes element insertion and deletion, as well as an exists() method that tests whether a value is present in the set. It also offers min() and max() methods. These methods all work as given for (unbalanced) BSTs, using the algorithms we discussed in lecture.
To implement the AVL balancing method, you will need to fill in some missing code to maintain the height of each subtree and perform rebalancing. Look for the 'FIXME' tags in AVLTree.java to see which methods you must modify.
Height Maintenance
You'll need to set the height data member each time a new leaf is allocated in the tree. You can then maintain the height as part of insertion or deletion using the incremental updating strategy you worked out in Studio 10, Part C.
The update procedure updateHeight() takes in a node and updates its height using the heights of its two subtrees. It should run in constant time.
You'll need to call updateHeight() wherever it is needed – in insertion, deletion, and perhaps elsewhere.
Rebalancing
You must implement four methods as part of AVL rebalancing:
· getBalance() computes the balance fact.
Codes of Ethics Guides Not Prescriptions A set of rules and di.docxmary772
Codes of Ethics: Guides Not Prescriptions A set of rules and directives that would result in efficient and ethical professional practice would be something clearly welcomed by student and professional alike. However, as should be clear by now, such prescriptions or recipes for professional practice do not exist, nor does every client and every professional condition provide clear-cut avenues for progress. Professional practice is both complex and complicated. The issues presented are often confounded and conflicting. The process of making sense of the options available and engaging in the path that leads to effective, ethical practice cannot be preprogrammed but rather needs to be fluid, flexible, and responsive to the uniqueness of the client and the context of helping. The very dynamic and fluid nature of our work with clients prohibits the use of rigid, formulaic prescriptions or directions. Never is this so obvious as when first confronted with an ethical dilemma. Consider the subtle challenges to practice decisions presented in Case Illustration 7.1. The case reflects a decision regarding the release of information and the potential breach of confidentiality. The element confounding the decision, as you will see, is that the client was deceased and it was the executrix of the estate providing permission to release the information to a third party.
Case Illustration 7.1 Conditions for Maintaining Confidentiality While all clinicians have been schooled in the issue of confidentiality and the various conditions under which confidentiality must be breached (e.g., prevention of harm to self or another), the conditions of maintenance of confidentiality can be somewhat blurred when the material under consideration is that of a client who is now deceased. Consider the case of Dr. Martin Orne, MD, PhD. Dr. Orne was a psychotherapist who worked with Anne Sexton, a Pulitzer Prize winner. Following the death of Ms. Sexton, an author, Ms. Middlebrook, set out to write her biography. In doing her research, Ms. Middlebrook discovered that Dr. Orne had tape-recorded a number of sessions with Ms. Sexton in order to allow her to review the sessions, and he had not destroyed the tapes following her death. Ms. Middlebrook approached Linda Gray Sexton, the daughter of the client and the executrix of the estate, seeking permission to access these tapes of the confidential therapy sessions as an aid to her writing. The daughter granted permission for release of the therapeutic tapes. A number of questions could be raised around this case, including the ethics of tape-recording or the ethics of maintenance of the tapes following the death of the client. However, the most pressing issue involves the conditions under which confidentiality should be maintained. The challenge here is, should Dr. Orne release the tapes in response to the daughter’s granting of permission, or does his client have the right to confidentiality even beyond the grave? As noted, t.
Codecademy Monetizing a Movement 815-093 815-093 Codecademy.docxmary772
Codecademy: Monetizing a Movement? 815-093
815-093 Codecademy: Monetizing a Movement?
Codecademy: Monetizing a Movement? 815-093
9-815-093
RE V : OCT OB E R 1 4 , 2 0 1 5
JEFFREY J. BU SSGANG
LISA C. MA ZZANTI
Codecademy: Monetizing a Movement?
We’re a movement to make education more of a commodity. We’re not just a for-profit company. Our mission would get tainted if we charged consumers for content. We need to be authentic.
— Zach Sims, Cofounder and CEO
Zach Sims and Ryan Bubinski sat in the Codecademy headquarters, an exposed-brick fourth-floor office near Madison Square Park in New York City. In 2011, while in their early twenties, the two had founded Codecademy, an open-platform, online community to teach users to code. By 2014, they had a total of 24 million unique users and a library of over 100,000 lessons. The company had raised a total of $12.5 million in funding and was, on many fronts, an overwhelming success. However, there were still no revenues. The company’s website stated, “Codecademy is free and always will be.”1
The founders, along with the board, had decided that 2014 would be a year of experimentation with different monetization strategies. By June, the cofounders had preliminarily tested two monetization models. The first charged companies for training employees offline on coding skills, a service that the training departments of these companies paid an annual fee to receive. The second monetization model focused on a labor marketplace to match Codecademy users with jobs that corporations and recruiters were seeking to fill.
But 2014 had also been busy in other arenas for the 25-employee company. In April, the company launched a redesign of its website, because, as the Codecademy blog announced, “it quickly became apparent that if we wanted to grow and mature as a brand, we required a thorough redesign of our entire product.”2 The next month, the company announced that they were opening an office in London to work with the British education system and also had forged partnerships with foundations and government bodies in Estonia, Argentina, and France.
As Sims and Bubinski huddled in their glass-walled conference room, they tried to focus on the task at hand—to narrow down their ideas and eventually decide on a viable business model. The two reviewed early results from both experiments to prepare for the upcoming board meeting where they planned to present their findings and propose next steps. The employee-training experiments had yielded promising initial results but would require hiring a sales force, offline instructors, and some content customization to scale. The labor marketplace model promised less friction in scaling but represented a more crowded market opportunity.
Senior Lecturer Jeffrey J. Bussgang and Case Researcher Lisa C. Mazzanti (Case Research & Writing Group) prepared this case. It was reviewed and approved before publication by a company designate. Funding for the develo.
Code switching involves using 1 language or nonstandard versions of .docxmary772
Code switching involves using 1 language or nonstandard versions of a language instead of another language due to setting, conversational partner, topic, and other factors.
Respond to the following in a minimum of 175 words:
When was a time that you engaged in code switching?
Why did you engage in code switching?
What were the potential benefits and potential consequences of code switching in that scenario?
What was the result of your actions?
.
Code of Ethics for the Nutrition and Dietetics Pr.docxmary772
Code of Ethics
for the Nutrition and Dietetics Profession
Effective Date: June 1, 2018
Preamble:
When providing services the nutrition and dietetics practitioner adheres to the core values of customer focus,
integrity, innovation, social responsibility, and diversity. Science-based decisions, derived from the best available research
and evidence, are the underpinnings of ethical conduct and practice.
This Code applies to nutrition and dietetics practitioners who act in a wide variety of capacities, provides general
principles and specific ethical standards for situations frequently encountered in daily practice. The primary goal is the
protection of the individuals, groups, organizations, communities, or populations with whom the practitioner works and
interacts.
The nutrition and dietetics practitioner supports and promotes high standards of professional practice, accepting
the obligation to protect clients, the public and the profession; upholds the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (Academy)
and its credentialing agency the Commission on Dietetic Registration (CDR) Code of Ethics for the Nutrition and Dietetics
Profession; and shall report perceived violations of the Code through established processes.
The Academy/CDR Code of Ethics for the Nutrition and Dietetics Profession establishes the principles and ethical
standards that underlie the nutrition and dietetics practitioner’s roles and conduct. All individuals to whom the Code
applies are referred to as “nutrition and dietetics practitioners”. By accepting membership in the Academy and/or accepting
and maintaining CDR credentials, all nutrition and dietetics practitioners agree to abide by the Code.
Principles and Standards:
1. Competence and professional development in practice (Non-maleficence)
Nutrition and dietetics practitioners shall:
a. Practice using an evidence-based approach within areas of competence, continuously develop and enhance
expertise, and recognize limitations.
b. Demonstrate in depth scientific knowledge of food, human nutrition and behavior.
c. Assess the validity and applicability of scientific evidence without personal bias.
d. Interpret, apply, participate in and/or generate research to enhance practice, innovation, and discovery.
e. Make evidence-based practice decisions, taking into account the unique values and circumstances of the
patient/client and community, in combination with the practitioner’s expertise and judgment.
f. Recognize and exercise professional judgment within the limits of individual qualifications and collaborate
with others, seek counsel, and make referrals as appropriate.
g. Act in a caring and respectful manner, mindful of individual differences, cultural, and ethnic diversity.
h. Practice within the limits of their scope and collaborate with the inter-professional team.
2. Integrity in personal and organizational behaviors and practices (Autonomy)
N.
Code of Ethics for Engineers 4. Engineers shall act .docxmary772
Code of Ethics for Engineers
4. Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or
trustees.
a. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of interest
that could influence or appear to influence their judgment or the
quality of their services.
b. Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise,
from more than one party for services on the same project, or for
services pertaining to the same project, unless the circumstances are
fully disclosed and agreed to by all interested parties.
c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable
consideration, directly or indirectly, from outside agents in
connection with the work for which they are responsible.
d. Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees
of a governmental or quasi-governmental body or department shall
not participate in decisions with respect to services solicited or
provided by them or their organizations in private or public
engineering practice.
e. Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental
body on which a principal or officer of their organization serves as
a member.
5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.
a. Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications or permit
misrepresentation of their or their associates’ qualifications. They
shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their responsibility in or for the
subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other
presentations incident to the solicitation of employment shall not
misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees,
associates, joint venturers, or past accomplishments.
b. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit, or receive, either directly or
indirectly, any contribution to influence the award of a contract by
public authority, or which may be reasonably construed by the
public as having the effect or intent of influencing the awarding of a
contract. They shall not offer any gift or other valuable
consideration in order to secure work. They shall not pay a
commission, percentage, or brokerage fee in order to secure work,
except to a bona fide employee or bona fide established commercial
or marketing agencies retained by them.
III. Professional Obligations
1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards
of honesty and integrity.
a. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or
alter the facts.
b. Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they believe
a project will not be successful.
c. Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of
their regular work or interest. Before accepting any outside
engineering employment, they will notify their employers.
d. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another
employer by false or misleading pretenses.
e. Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of the
dignity and integr.
Coder Name: Rebecca Oquendo
Coding Categories:
Episode
Aggressive Behavior
Neutral Behavior
Virtuous Behavior
Aggressive Gaming
Neutral Gaming
Virtuous Gaming
An older peer began using slurs or derogatory language
An older peer suggested that the team should cheat
The child witnessed an older peer intentionally leave out another player
An older player suggested that they play a different game
The child lost the game with older players on their team
The child witnessed an older player curse every time a mistake was made
Index:
· In this case aggressive behavior would constitute as mimicking older members undesired behaviors or becoming especially angry or agitated in game. A neutral behavior would be playing as they usually would not mimicking older player’s behaviors or trying to fit in to their more aggressive styles. A virtuous behavior would be steering the game away from aggression, voicing an opinion about the excessive aggression, or finding a way to express their gaming experience in a positive way. The same can be applied for the similar categories in “gaming”.
· Each category can be scaled from 1-7 in which way the child’s dialogue tended to be behavior and gaming wise with a 1 indicating little to no effort in that direction and a 7 indicating extreme effort in that category.
1. What are the different types of attributes? Provide examples of each attribute.
2. Describe the components of a decision tree. Give an example problem and provide an example of each component in your decision making tree
3. Conduct research over the Internet and find an article on data mining. The article has to be less than 5 years old. Summarize the article in your own words. Make sure that you use APA formatting for this assignment.
Questions from attached files
1. Obtain one of the data sets available at the UCI Machine Learning Repository and apply as many of the different visualization techniques described in the chapter as possible. The bibliographic notes and book Web site provide pointers to visualization software.
2. Identify at least two advantages and two disadvantages of using color to visually represent information.
3. What are the arrangement issues that arise with respect to three-dimensional plots?
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using sampling to reduce the number of data objects that need to be displayed. Would simple random sampling (without replacement) be a good approach to sampling? Why or why not?
5. Describe how you would create visualizations to display information that describes the following types of systems.
a) Computer networks. Be sure to include both the static aspects of the network, such as connectivity, and the dynamic aspects, such as traffic.
b) The distribution of specific plant and animal species around the world fora specific moment in time.
c) The use of computer resources, such as processor time, main me.
Codes of Ethical Conduct A Bottom-Up ApproachRonald Paul .docxmary772
Codes of Ethical Conduct: A Bottom-Up Approach
Ronald Paul Hill • Justine M. Rapp
Received: 18 January 2013 / Accepted: 12 December 2013 / Published online: 1 January 2014
� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Developing and implementing a meaningful
code of conduct by managers or consultants may require a
change in orientation that modifies the way these precepts
are determined. The position advocated herein is for a
different approach to understanding and organizing the
guiding parameters of the firm that requires individual
reflection and empowerment of the entire organization to
advance their shared values. The processes involved are
discussed using four discrete stages that move from the
personal to the work team and to the unit to the full
company, followed by the board of directors’ evaluation.
The hoped-for end product is dynamic, employee-driven,
codes of conduct that recognize the systemic and far-
reaching impact of organizational activities across internal
and external stakeholders. Operational details for and some
issues associated with its implementation are also provided.
Keywords Code of conduct � Employee-driven
approaches � Bottom-up development
Corporation, Be Good! Frederick (2006)
That managers and employees are capable of both ethical
and unethical behaviors due to individual and internal
corporate culture factors cannot be denied (Ashforth and
Anand 2003; Treviño and Weaver 2003; Treviño et al.
2006). Over the last decade, as diverse organizational
stakeholders began exerting more pressure on firms to
eliminate unethical conduct, the field of management has
witnessed a proliferation of research on ethics and ethical
behavior in organizations (Elango et al. 2010; Gopala-
krishnan et al. 2008; O’Fallon and Butterfield 2005; Tre-
viño et al. 2006).
However, recent ethical failures, as well as continuous
ethical challenges that organizations face, have led scholars
to conclude that predicting ethical dilemmas is difficult a
priori: ‘‘It is only, when we look back on our conduct over
the long run that we may find ourselves guilty of moral
laxity’’ (Geva 2006, p. 138). What underlies this particular
situation is the inability of organizational elites to monitor
and implement initiatives within today’s complex business
entities (Martin and Eisenhardt 2010; Uhl-Bien et al.
2007). Accordingly, more dynamic approaches to business
ethics is needed, one that spans ‘‘both the individual and
organizational levels’’ of concern (Gopalakrishnan et al.
2008, p. 757).
As a consequence and in reaction to neoclassical eco-
nomics, managers and their employees are expected to go
beyond dictates imposed by the law and marketplace to
fulfill larger responsibilities (Stark 1993). This expectation
is accomplished through adoption of a stakeholder per-
spective that is infused with empathy for people, groups,
and communities that may be impacted by the actions of
business.
Code#RE00200012002020MN2DGHEType of Service.docxmary772
Code#RE00200012002020MN2DGHE
*****************
Type of Service
Presentation task- Attack Vector
Solution
s Step 14: Submit the Presentation
Project Title/Subject
Attack Vector
.
CODE OF ETHICSReview the following case study and address the qu.docxmary772
CODE OF ETHICS
Review the following case study and address the questions that follow:
General Hospital’s staff aggregated its infection rate data for comparison purposes with four other hospitals in the community. The staff members were aware that the data was flawed. They presented a false perception that General Hospital’s postoperative infection rates were lower than those of peer hospitals. The comparison data was published in the local newspaper. The Jones family, believing the data to be correct and concerned about the number of deaths related to hospital-acquired infections, relied on the data in selecting General Hospital as their preferred hospital.
Tasks:
Describe how organizational and professional codes of ethics were violated in this case.
Describe what role an organization’s ethics committee could play in addressing this or similar issues.
400 words APA format
.
cocaine, conspiracy theories and the cia in central america by Craig.docxmary772
cocaine, conspiracy theories and the cia in central america by Craig Delaval
Delaval is a freelance writer and filmmaker and was a production assistant for "Drug Wars." This article was edited by Lowell Bergman, series reporter for "Drug Wars."
Since its creation in 1947 under President Harry Truman, the CIA has been credited with a number of far-fetched operations. While some were proven - the infamous LSD mind-control experiments of the 1950s - others, like the assassination of John F. Kennedy and the crash of the Savings and Loans industry, have little or no merit.
In 1996 the agency was accused of being a crack dealer.
A series of expose articles in the San Jose Mercury-News by reporter Gary Webb told tales of a drug triangle during the 1980s that linked CIA officials in Central America, a San Francisco drug ring and a Los Angeles drug dealer. According to the stories, the CIA and its operatives used crack cocaine--sold via the Los Angeles African-American community--to raise millions to support the agency's clandestine operations in Central America.
The CIA's suspect past made the sensational articles an easy sell. Talk radio switchboards lit up, as did African-American leaders like U.S. Rep. Maxine Waters, D-Los Angeles, who pointed to Webb's articles as proof of a mastermind plot to destroy inner-city black America.
One of the people who was accused in the San Jose Mercury-News of being in the midst of the CIA cocaine conspiracy is one of the most respected, now retired, veteran D.E.A. agents, Robert "Bobby" Nieves.
"You have to understand Central America at that time was a haven for the conspiracy theorists. Christic Institute, people like Gary Webb, others down there, looking to dig up some story for political advantage," Nieves said. "No sexier story than to create the notion in people's minds that these people are drug traffickers."
But in the weeks following publication, Webb's peers doubted the merit of the articles. Fellow journalists at the Washington Post, New York Times and Webb's own editor accused him of blowing a few truths up into a massive conspiracy.
Amongst Webb's fundamental problems was his implication that the CIA lit the crack cocaine fuse. It was conspiracy theory: a neat presentation of reality that simply didn't jibe with real life. Webb later agreed in an interview that there is no hard evidence that the CIA as an institution or any of its agent-employees carried out or profited from drug trafficking.
Still, the fantastic story of the CIA injecting crack into ghettos had taken hold. In response to the public outcry following Webb's allegations--which were ultimately published in book form under the title Dark Alliance--the CIA conducted an internal investigation of its role in Central America related to the drug trade. Frederick Hitz, as the CIA Inspector General-- an independent watchdog approved by Congress--conducted the investigation. In October 1998, the CIA released a declassifie.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Digital Tools and AI for Teaching Learning and Research
Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task Planning and Monito.docx
1. Cognitive Processes in the Breakfast Task: Planning and
Monitoring
Nathan S. Rose
Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
Lin Luo and Ellen Bialystok
York University
Alexandra Hering, Karen Lau, and Fergus I. M. Craik
Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Toronto, Canada
The Breakfast Task (Craik & Bialystok, 2006) is a computerized
task that simulates the planning and
monitoring requirements involved in cooking breakfast, an
everyday activity important for functional
independence. In Experiment 1, 28 adults performed the
Breakfast Task, and outcome measures were
examined with principal component analysis to elucidate the
structure of cognitive processes underlying
performance. Analyses revealed a 2-component structure which
putatively captured global planning and
local monitoring abilities. In Experiment 2, the structure of
Breakfast Task performance was cross-
validated on a new sample of 59 healthy older adults who also
performed tests assessing working
memory, processing speed, inhibition, reasoning and
prospective memory. Factor analyses showed that
the global planning component from the Breakfast Task was
significantly correlated with individual
differences in executive functions but the local monitoring
component was independent of such func-
2. tions. The Breakfast Task provides a fast, enjoyable, and
lifelike assessment of complex everyday
planning and monitoring, and their underlying processes such as
working memory and executive
functions.
Keywords: planning, monitoring, working memory, prospective
memory, executive processes
The cognitive processes underlying many everyday activities,
such as running errands, shopping for groceries, or preparing a
meal, are surprisingly complex. To complete such activities it is
necessary to formulate a sequence of actions to achieve the
goals,
store and update the action plan in working memory, and con-
sciously monitor and coordinate the execution of subtasks.
These
aspects of cognitive processes are often grouped under the um-
brella term planning (Morris & Ward, 2005). Efficient planning
clearly depends on a multitude of cognitive processes, but the
relative contribution of specific processes is less clear, and their
apparent involvement may depend both on the particular task
and
on how planning is assessed.
Laboratory studies investigating planning behaviour typically
adopt one of two general approaches (Ward & Morris, 2005).
The
first approach is represented by tower tasks, such as Tower of
Hanoi and its variants (e.g., Owen, 2005), in which participants
are
required to solve an unfamiliar problem following a set of
restric-
tions. This approach has the advantage of experimental control,
but
is often criticised for its limited applicability to everyday situa-
3. tions. The second approach, in contrast, uses tasks in which the
goals and contexts are common in everyday life. Examples of
this
method include errand tasks and their variants (Burgess,
Simons,
Coates, & Channon, 2005), in which participants are given a
series
of tasks to perform in a set order, typically in real-life settings.
This approach has the advantage of better ecological validity,
but
the complexity of such tasks reduces the ability to specify the
cognitive components. The present study aims to give a fuller
description of the cognitive processes involved in planning by
using a simulated “real-life” task that has both ecological
validity
and experimental control.
The task in question is the Breakfast Task (Craik & Bialystok,
2006), which is a computerized task that simulates the planning
and task management requirements in a common everyday situa-
tion: cooking breakfast. The task is described in detail later, but
in
overview the participant’s task was to “cook” five breakfast
foods
in such a way that the five foods were not over- or undercooked,
and were “ready to serve” at the same time. The task was imple-
mented on a touch-screen computer, and participants started and
stopped cooking each food by pressing the START and STOP
buttons next to the icon indicating that food (see Figure 1).
Cooking progress of each food was indicated by a countdown
timer running in real time. Between starting and stopping
cooking,
the participant also carried out a table-setting task as a
background
This article was published Online First May 4, 2015.
5. 2015, Vol. 69, No. 3, 252–263 1196-1961/15/$12.00
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cep0000054
252
activity. The overall task was to coordinate and manage cooking
the foods, while setting as many places as possible.
The Breakfast Task clearly demands good multitasking abilities
to perform it efficiently, and previous studies have provided
mod-
els of planning in a multitasking context. As one example,
Burgess, Veitch, de Lacy Costello, and Shallice (2000) studied
the
performance of 60 brain-damaged patients and 60 controls on
the
Greenwich Test, which consists of three complex open-ended
tasks
to be performed in 10 min. Their data suggested a three-factor
model consisting of memory, planning, and intention, with plan-
ning and intention (including prospective memory) being depen-
dent on good learning and memory for the rules governing the
task.
A subsequent study by Logie, Trawley, and Law (2011)
followed
up the Burgess et al. (2000) findings but used healthy young
adults
as participants. They used a multiple-errands task performed in
a
virtual environment: a 3-D model of a four-story building.
Logie
and colleagues (2011) confirmed the three-factor structure of
memory, planning, and intention proposed by Burgess and col-
leagues, although memory was not as crucial as a precursor for
6. planning as in the earlier study. Additionally, Logie and
colleagues
found that a measure of spatial working memory was a strong
predictor of success in their task. Interestingly they used the
Breakfast Task as their measure of prospective memory but
found
that Breakfast Task performance did not predict success on their
multiple-errand task.
As a tentative summary statement, it may be suggested that the
factor structure of different multitasking situations will vary de-
pending on the precise needs of each particular task. Thus, for
example, the Greenwich Test used by Burgess et al. (2000) re-
quires substantial learning of complex rules, so planning and
intention depended on adequate learning and memory. The task
used by Logie et al. (2011) required retention of visuospatial
information so it makes sense that visual working memory was a
strong predictor of success in their experiment. In the case of
the
Breakfast Task we predicted that good performance would
depend
on the ability to formulate and execute a plan, and to maintain
the
overall goal in mind while monitoring and executing the
subgoals.
Craik and Bialystok (2006) proposed that the cognitive abilities
involved in achieving these goals include working memory, to
hold both the general plan and the progress of each food in
mind,
task switching to switch efficiently between cooking and table
setting, and prospective memory, to remember to start and stop
foods appropriately.
The Breakfast Task measures are sensitive to factors known to
affect executive functioning and prospective memory, such as
7. healthy aging (Craik & Bialystok, 2006; Kerr, 1991), bilingual-
ism (Craik & Bialystok, 2006), and neurological pathologies
(Bialystok, Craik, & Stefurak, 2008; West, McNerney, &
Krauss,
2007), providing some support for their validity. However, the
interpretation of the measures was substantially intuitive. No
direct
evidence is yet available to establish the relationship between
each
measure and its proposed underlying cognitive processes. The
primary purpose of the present study was thus to provide a more
principled description of the cognitive processes involved in the
Breakfast Task itself; a secondary purpose was the more general
Figure 1. A sample screen for the one-screen condition of the
Breakfast Task, showing foods in the process
of being cooked. Neither the toast nor the coffee has been
started, so their cooking indicators are not yet shown.
The eggs and pancakes have each been cooking for a few
seconds, and the sausages have been cooking for over
1½ min (Reproduced with permission from Craik & Bialystok,
2006). See the online article for the color version
of this figure.
253COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BREAKFAST TASK
one of providing more information on the cognitive processes
that
contribute to efficient planning and task management behaviour.
In the first experiment we tested 28 adults aged 39–68 years on
the Breakfast Task. We performed principal component analysis
(PCA) on the set of breakfast measures to examine the structure
of
8. performance. In the second experiment we tested an
independent
sample of 59 healthy older adults on the task—to cross-validate
the
structure of Breakfast Task performance—and on a range of
tests
of cognitive functions. These tests focused on the measurement
of
executive functions (EF) and prospective memory (PM), the
main
candidate processes underlying complex planning activities.
Just
as planning is not a unitary construct, neither should executive
functions and prospective memory be regarded as unitary con-
structs. We therefore included multiple tests and measures to
reflect different aspects of these abilities. We performed explor-
atory factor analyses on the sets of EF and PM measures to
extract
processing components tapped by these measures, and then
exam-
ined the relations between these processing components and the
breakfast measures with correlational analyses. Again, the
primary
purpose of this paper was to provide a detailed account of the
processes measured by the Breakfast Task, rather than to test
any
particular model of planning and multitasking. Because of this,
and
the relatively small sample sizes, the analysis techniques used
were
exploratory ones (PCA, factor analysis and correlations) rather
than a confirmatory one such as structural equation modelling.
Experiment 1
Method
9. Participants. Twenty-eight adults aged 39–68 years, M �
50.3 years, 18 females and 10 males, participated in the study.
The
large spread of ages was deliberately chosen with the
expectation
that this would yield a range of performance levels, similar to
what
one might expect when testing clinical samples. Participants
were
volunteers from the community who received $12-per-hr
remuner-
ation for participation. The participants spoke English fluently
and
had received 16.7 years of education on average. All
participants
had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and hearing and stated
that they were in good health.
Tasks and measures: The Breakfast Task. The Breakfast
Task was implemented on a computer using a 34 cm by 27 cm
touch-screen monitor. Participants were required to prepare a
virtual breakfast consisting of five foods and set a table while
the
foods were cooking. As depicted in Figure 1, each food was
shown
on the screen along with its required cooking time, a START
and
a STOP button, and a thermometer-like timer indicating cooking
progress. Participants pressed the buttons to start or stop
cooking
the corresponding food. Each timer was initially set to the
required
cooking time for its corresponding food and started to move
down
in real time once cooking started. After the correct cooking
10. time,
the timer reached zero with no further indication of the amount
of
overcooking. The program recorded the time that the START
and
STOP buttons were pressed so that the duration of undercooking
or
overcooking could be calculated. At the same time, participants
set
a table by placing forks, knives, spoons and plates in the correct
arrangement in four place settings (see Figure 1). Participants
were
told that their primary goal was to cook the foods for the correct
duration (i.e., to avoid undercooking or overcooking the foods)
and
to have all the foods ready at the same time, and their secondary
goal was to set as many places as they could.
The task began with detailed instructions and a practice session
to ensure that participants understood the task. Participants then
completed the three conditions described in Craik and Bialystok
(2006) in a fixed order. In the one-screen condition (performed
first), all the foods and the table were on the same screen, as
shown
in Figure 1. In the two-screen condition (performed second), the
table appeared on one screen and the five foods and their time
bars
appeared on a different screen, requiring switching between the
two screens. In the six-screen condition (performed last), each
of the
five foods occupied a separate screen, in addition to the table
screen.
In the present study, the one-screen and two-screen conditions
were
regarded as practice trials for the six-screen condition, which
11. requires
the greatest amounts of planning, monitoring, and task-
switching.
Performance on this last condition is described in the Results
section.
The program recorded the timing of all the responses as the
participants completed the task. The timing information was
used
to calculate the following measures. The first variable,
discrepancy
cooking time was the absolute value of the difference in time
between the actual and required cooking times (i.e., amount of
undercooking or overcooking) averaged across the five foods,
and
may therefore reflect the effective management of switching be-
tween the primary and secondary tasks. Range of stop times was
the difference in seconds between stopping the first and the last
food. A value close to zero indicated the foods finished cooking
at
approximately the same time, thereby reflecting optimal perfor-
mance on the primary task goal. Deviation of start times was the
average deviation between the ideal and actual start times for
Foods 2 to 5. In order for the foods to be done cooking around
the
same time, the ideal time to start each food depended on when
previous foods were started. Therefore, “ideal start times” were
cal-
culated for each food, adjusted according to the previous start
times
(for a more detailed description of this calculation, see Craik &
Bialystok, 2006). Number of food checks was the number of
times the
participant switched to the food screen to check the cooking
progress
for the two- and six-screen conditions. Finally, number of table
12. settings, calculated as the number of settings completed,
captured
performance on the secondary task (setting the table).
Results
In this study all participants remembered to start and stop all
foods, but the task is demanding with the result that participants
often temporarily neglected one or more foods while
concentrating
on other foods or setting the table. This feature of the task
resulted
in many cases in which participants might have four
discrepancy
scores of a few seconds but one poorly monitored food with a
discrepancy of 60 s or more. To compensate for such anomalies
we
took medians as the scored measure for discrepancy cooking
times
and deviation of start times, and for the same reason took the
median of all 10 between-food comparisons of stop times (i.e.,
the
median of differences between Foods 1–2, 1–3, 1–4 . . . 4–5) as
the scored measure for range of stop times. Even after these
adjustments, the distributions of discrepancies, deviations and
ranges were heavily skewed, so the logarithms of these values
were used in further analyses. Means for the raw scores of the
five
scored variables in the six-screen condition are shown in Table
1A,
254 ROSE, LUO, BIALYSTOK, HERING, LAU, AND CRAIK
and Pearson correlations among the variables are shown in
13. Table
1B.
Principal component analyses (PCA). To examine the struc-
ture of the variance in breakfast performance we conducted a
PCA
with oblique rotation on the measures. To determine the number
of
components retained in the model, we used a combination of
two
commonly used criteria based on eigenvalues and a scree test.
For all
the reported component structures below, all eigenvalues for re-
tained components were greater than 1.2, eigenvalues for
dropped
components were less than 0.9, and the smallest break between
eigenvalues for retained components and dropped components
was
0.44.
The PCA revealed a solution with two components accounting
for 62% of the variance (Table 2A). The first component
received
high loadings from number of table settings, range of stop times
and deviation from ideal start times. The second component re-
ceived high loadings from number of food checks and
discrepancy
from stop times. The correlation between the components was
0.15, suggesting the rotation was successful in capturing unique
variance between the two components. We interpret the first set
of
variables as reflecting efficient planning and task management
to
achieve the primary goal of the task (cook the foods so that they
can be served together) and efficient switching between primary
14. and secondary goals (cooking and setting the table). That is,
good
planning and task management were associated with a large
num-
ber of table settings, a small range of stop times, and small
deviations from ideal start times. We interpret the second set of
variables as reflecting the ability to monitor cooking progress
and
complete the task effectively. In this case good performance
was
associated with a large number of food checks and a small dis-
crepancy between specified and actual cooking times. There is
also
a sense in which the first component reflects “global” variables
associated with good planning in advance of performing the task
(many table settings and small deviations from ideal start times
resulting in a small range of stop times) whereas the second
component reflects more “local” variables associated with many
food checks resulting in small discrepancies between actual and
ideal stop times for cooking (see also Craik & Bialystok, 2006).
Before discussing these results further, we report a second
experiment whose function was to cross-validate the structure
of
breakfast performance on an independent sample and to examine
the relations between the breakfast measures and measures of
executive functions and prospective memory.
Experiment 2
Method
Participants. Fifty-nine healthy adults aged 60–79 years,
M � 67.4 years, 38 females and 21 males, participated in the
study. Participants were screened for dementia using the
telephone
15. interview of cognitive status (TICS; Brandt, Spencer, &
Folstein,
1988). This instrument has a maximum score of 41, and a cutoff
for dementia at 25. We chose a cutoff for participation of 31
and
above, based on a prior clinical study by Desmond, Tatemichi,
and
Hanzawa (1994) whose group of 36 control participants (mean
age � 71.8 years) had a mean TICS score of 33.4 (SD � 4.2). In
the present case, mean TICS score was 35.8 (SD � 2.1). Partici-
pants were fluent English speakers who obtained an average
score
of 17.3 out of 20 correct on an abbreviated Shipley vocabulary
test,
and reported an average of 15.4 years of education. All
participants
Table 1
Means (SDs) of Measures From the Breakfast Task and
Correlations Among These Measures (Experiment 1)
1A. Means
Table settings Food checks Discrepancy (s) Range (s) Deviation
(s)
25.9 (7.8) 13.2 (6.5) 11 (7.4) 11.5 (8.3) 12.8 (15.0)
1B. Correlations (N � 28)
Table settings Food checks Discrepancy Range Deviation
Table settings 1.00 �.03 0.03 �0.18 �0.38
Food checks 1.00 �0.15 0.29 �0.09
Discrepancy 1.00 0.07 0.21
Range 1.00 0.48�
16. Deviation 1.00
Note. 1A. Values for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviation are
based on medians but values reported in this table are the mean
of those median values. 1B.
Values for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviations used in
correlations were log medians (see text).
� Correlation significant at p � .05.
Table 2
Rotated Component Structure and Component Loading on the
Breakfast Task Measures From Experiments 1 and 2
A. Expt 1 B. Expt 2.1 C. Expt 2.2
Components Factors Factors
1 2 1 2 1 2
Table settings .67 �.24 .38 �.09 .37 �.03
Food checks �.40 .74 .04 .50 .24 .59
Discrepancy �.17 �.71 .37 �.67 .18 �.59
Range �.76 .02 �.99 .16 �.92 .07
Deviation �.76 �.42 �.62 �.43 �.64 �.35
Note. Values in bold type for Experiment (Expt) 1 are
significant at p �
.05. Values used for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviations were
log medians
(see text). Discrepancy � discrepancy between specified and
actual stop
times; Deviation � deviation between ideal and actual start
times; Expt
2.1 � data collected on the first occasion; Expt 2.2 � data
collected on the
second occasion.
17. 255COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BREAKFAST TASK
had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and hearing. Addition-
ally, 55 of the same participants returned to the lab between 4
and
6 weeks later to perform the Breakfast Task a second time. The
study was part of a cognitive training study; 24 of the returning
participants had received 12 hr of practice on a computerized
version of the Virtual Week task (Rendell & Craik, 2000) de-
scribed later; 13 had received instruction in aspects of music,
and
18 were controls who received no further training. The resulting
data from the second visit provided a further opportunity to
assess
the structure of the Breakfast Task and to measure test–retest
reliabilities of its component measures.
Tasks and measures. On the first occasion, participants com-
pleted the following tasks in one 2-hr session. On the second
occasion, participants again performed the Breakfast Task and
the
Virtual Week task. Prior to each task, detailed instructions and
practice or sample trials were given to the participants to ensure
proper understanding.
The Breakfast Task. Administration of the Breakfast Task
was the same as in Experiment 1 except that participants did not
perform the two-screen condition. We wanted to see if the same
factor structure could be achieved with a shorter version of the
task. Additionally, all participants used the computer mouse
rather
than a touch screen in this study.
18. Basic cognitive abilities and executive functions. The follow-
ing tests assessed a number of basic cognitive abilities and
exec-
utive functions including verbal knowledge (Shipley
vocabulary),
processing speed (digit-symbol substitution), working memory
(n-back, Corsi block test), inhibition (Stroop test), and
reasoning
(Raven’s). Data were missing for four participants for the Corsi
test (computer error), two participants for the Virtual Week task
(computer error), and five participants did not perform the n-
back
task due to time limitations. Details for all tests are given
below.
Shipley vocabulary. The vocabulary subtest of the Shipley
Institute of Living Scale (Zachary, 1986) was used to assess
English vocabulary. To minimise testing time, rather than test
all
40 items we tested 20 items; half of the participants received
the
even-numbered items, and the remainder received the odd-
numbered items. For each item, participants were asked to
choose
the one word out of four which is the most similar in meaning to
the prompting word printed in capital letters. The task was
scored
based on the total number of items completed correctly.
Raven’s matrices. The 29-item multiple-choice test examines
nonverbal reasoning abilities by requiring participants to
correctly
choose an answer to complete a pattern (Raven, Court, &
Raven,
1996). Participants completed two practice questions. They then
tried to complete as many items as they could within a 10-min
19. time
limit. The total number of items correct and the number of items
attempted were recorded.
Digit-symbol substitution task. The digit-symbol task is a
speeded task measuring information processing speed
(Wechsler,
1997). A legend of nine single digits with corresponding
symbols
is at the top of the page. Seven rows of digits with empty
squares
underneath them are under the legend. After completing seven
practice items, participants were required to correctly fill in
sym-
bols under their corresponding numbers as quickly as they could
for 2 min. The total number of items correct was recorded.
Stroop task (Stroop, 1935). Participants were presented with
three sheets. The first sheet contained names of colours printed
in
black ink, and participants were asked to read the words. The
second sheet contained colour patches and participants were
asked
to name the ink colours. The third sheet was the interference
condition, in which colour names were printed in an incongruent
ink colour (e.g., the word red printed in green ink). The partici-
pants were required to name the ink colour and ignore the
words.
Participants were instructed to complete each sheet as fast as
they
could without making any mistakes. The time taken to complete
each sheet was measured in seconds. The Stroop Effect was
measured by interference cost, expressed as the time difference
between the interference condition and the colour-patch naming
condition. In this case, good performance is signalled by small
20. cost
values.
Working memory. Spatial working memory was assessed by a
computerized version of the Corsi block task (Milner, 1971).
The
task consisted of a forward condition and a backward condition.
In
the forward condition, a 6 � 6 grid of grey squares was
displayed
on a computer monitor. A sequence of blue squares was then
presented serially; that is, one of the 36 squares turned blue
briefly,
followed by one or more further blue squares depending on se-
quence length. Each blue square appeared for 1,000 ms,
followed
by a blank grid interstimulus interval of 500 ms. Sequence
length
ranged from two to eight squares. A brief recall prompt that
consisted of the grid with a red border around it appeared for
500
ms to indicate the end of the sequence presentation. Participants
were then required to reproduce the sequences by clicking on
the
squares with a computer mouse in the correct order of
presentation.
Two trials were presented at each span length between two and
eight, for a total of 14 trials. The backward condition was
similar
to the forward condition in that the same presentation design
was
used but participants were prompted to select the squares that
turned blue in the reverse order in which they were presented.
Participants completed a practice trial of three squares before
moving on to the experimental trials. Fourteen trials were pre-
sented, again ranging from two to eight squares. A total correct
21. score was obtained by summing the number of squares selected
correctly in both conditions.
Verbal working memory was assessed by the n-back task. The
n-back task required participants to constantly update
information
in working memory. The stimuli consisted of a sequence of
letters
presented at a rate of one per second. On presentation of each
letter, participants were to press a key labelled yes or no to
indicate
whether the letter matched the letter presented two letters back
in
the sequence. The n-back-block consisted of 50 trials with 17
targets and 33 nontargets. The dependent variable was the
propor-
tion of hits minus false alarms.
Prospective memory. The test of PM was a version of the
Virtual Week task (Rendell & Craik, 2000), which is a board
game
developed to assess PM in a simulated everyday setting. In the
current study, participants performed the computerized version
of
Virtual Week (for details, see Rendell & Henry, 2009; Rose,
Rendell, McDaniel, Aberle, & Kliegel, 2010). Each circuit of
the
game represents one day from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m., and
participants
move around the board by clicking on a computer icon that
simulates the roll of a die. At the beginning of each day, partici-
pants click on the “Start Card” button, which shows them cards
that indicate the tasks they are required to perform that day.
They
have to remember to carry out activities either at specified
“times”
22. (as they pass the relevant square on the board) or in response to
specified “events” that are given on “Event Cards” that come up
in
256 ROSE, LUO, BIALYSTOK, HERING, LAU, AND CRAIK
the course of the circuit. The PM tasks were either “regular”
(the
same tasks on all circuits) or “irregular” (different tasks on each
circuit). The same four regular tasks were performed on every
circuit of the board and were given in instructions before the
game
started; two were in response to events (taking antibiotics at
breakfast and dinner) and two were in response to squares indi-
cating virtual times on the board (taking asthma medication at
11
a.m. and 9 p.m.). Irregular tasks also included two tasks in re-
sponse to events and two other tasks in response to the virtual
time
presented in the centre of the screen. These tasks are different
for
each circuit, however, and were given by either the Start Card at
the beginning of each circuit or Event Cards presented during
the
game. As participants moved around the board, they were
required
to click on the Event Cards button as they passed “event
squares,”
make choices about daily activities (e.g., a choice of foods for
lunch), and remember to carry out the required activities. All
activities were those that people normally do in a typical day.
Participants carried out the specified actions by clicking on the
“Perform Task” button and selecting the appropriate task from a
list of PM tasks and distractors. The third type of PM task was a
23. time check task in which the participant had to click on the
Perform Task button and select the “lung capacity test” task
when
2 min and also 4 min had elapsed in real time from the start of
the
current circuit. This “real-life” time was displayed by a clock
that
began running at the click of the Start button in the centre of
the
board game and could be checked at any time. Therefore, 10 PM
responses were assessed on each day (one complete circuit
around
the board). Participants completed 3 days of the game following
a
“practice day.” The 3 days thus included six regular event-
related,
six regular time-related, six irregular event-related, six irregular
time-related, and six time-check responses. The dependent vari-
ables were the rate of accuracy for each type of response.
Results
Effects of training on Breakfast Task performance. The
purpose of the training manipulation was to assess whether pro-
spective memory was amenable to training, and this aspect of
the
study is discussed elsewhere. The results of the Breakfast Task,
the
virtual week task, and the various other cognitive tasks on the
first
and second occasions of testing are given below. First, however,
we wished to determine whether the different training
procedures
(Virtual Week, Musical Practice, and Controls) had a
differential
24. effect on Breakfast Task performance. Accordingly we
performed
five separate one-way ANOVAs on the five Breakfast Task mea-
sures—number of table settings, number of food checks, log
median discrepancy, log median range, and log median devia-
tion—with the three training groups as a between-subjects vari-
able. These analyses yielded no significant effect of training
group
in any case, all Fs � 1.28, ps � 0.28. Since no measure was
affected differentially by the different training procedures we
treated all participants on the second occasion as belonging to a
single group.
Means, correlations and exploratory factor analyses.
Tables 3A and 4A show the means of the five Breakfast Task
measures on the first and second testing occasion, respectively.
As
described earlier, medians for each participant were taken as the
measure for discrepancy cooking times, range of stop times, and
deviation from ideal start times; the values shown in the tables
are
the means of these medians. The scores in Table 4A (second
occasion) show somewhat better performance on all measures
than
the scores in Table 3A (first occasion); that is, more tables were
set
and the values of discrepancy, range, and deviation were
smaller,
in line with the idea that participants were more practiced on
the
second occasion. The values in Tables 3A and 4A show poorer
performance than those from Experiment 1, however (see Table
1),
presumably reflecting the fact that the participants in
Experiment
1 were younger (50.3 years compared with 67.4 years) and had
25. received more years of education (16.7 years compared with
15.4
years) than the participants in Experiment 2. A further
possibility
is that use of the touch-screen in Experiment 1, as opposed to
the
computer mouse in Experiment 2, may have benefited
participants
in the first study. The correlations among Breakfast Task
measures
are shown in Tables 3B and 4B.
To examine the structure within the breakfast measures and to
validate the structure obtained in Experiment 1, we performed
exploratory factor analyses specified by two factors on the data
from each testing occasion. Exploratory analyses were preferred
over confirmatory analyses given that the structure revealed in
the
Table 3
Means (SDs) of Measures From the Breakfast Task and
Correlations Among the Means (Experiment 2, First Occasion)
3A. Means (N � 59)
Table settings Food checks Discrepancy (s) Range (s) Deviation
(s)
15.0 (2.3) 18.4 (4.7) 25.8 (25.5) 23.2 (21.9) 26.2 (22.0)
3B. Correlations (N � 59)
Table settings Food checks Discrepancy Range Deviation
Table settings 1.00 �0.05 0.18 �0.39�� �0.20
Food checks 1.00 �0.33� 0.04 �0.16
26. Discrepancy 1.00 �0.47�� 0.05
Range 1.00 0.58��
Deviation 1.00
Note. 3A. Values for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviation are
medians. 3B. Values for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviations
used in correlations were log
medians (see text).
� Correlation significant at p � .05. �� Correlation significant
at p � .01.
257COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BREAKFAST TASK
data from Experiment 1 was not predicted and was obtained
from
a small sample. Confirmation of the structure was therefore
sought
by convergence of the same pattern over replications of the
task.
The two-factor solution using maximum likelihood estimation
on
the data from the first occasion revealed a structure similar to
that
shown in Experiment 1 (see Table 2), with the first factor
explain-
ing 33% of the variance and the second factor explaining 19%
of
the variance (total � 52%). A goodness-of-fit-test indicated that
the observed solution was not different from a two-factor
model,
�2(1) � 0.15, p � .70. In contrast, fitting the data with a one-
factor model resulted in a significant difference between the ob-
served and imposed structure in the data, �2(5) � 17.22, p �
27. .005,
and the chi-square difference test indicated that the one-factor
model was a substantially poorer fit to the data, ��2(1) �
17.07,
p � .001. The first factor again received high loadings from a
small range of stop times and small deviations from ideal start
times. Two differences from Experiment 1 are, first, that the
number of food checks no longer loaded on the first factor and,
second, that the loading from number of table settings was sub-
stantially reduced. The second factor again received high
loadings
from a large number of food checks and small discrepancies
between specified and actual stop times. Thus, cross-validation
of
the structure of the breakfast measures on an independent
sample
was achieved with the first set of variables reflecting effective
planning and cooking performance (small deviations from ideal
start times and a narrow range of stop times), and the second set
of
variables reflecting the ability to efficiently carry out the plan
and
monitor cooking progress (a large number of food checks and
small discrepancies between specified and actual cooking times
for
each food).
A further exploratory factor analysis was carried out on the data
from the second testing occasion. Again, the two-factor model
fit
the data well, with the first factor accounting for 30% of the
variance and the second factor accounting for 16% of the
variance.
The goodness-of-fit test indicated that the observations were
well
fit by a two-factor model, �2(1) � 2.23, p � .14, which fitted
28. the
data better than a one-factor model, �2(5) � 13.40, p � .02,
with
a chi-square difference test again indicating that the one-factor
model was a significantly poorer fit, ��2(1) � 11.18, p � .001.
This analysis (see Table 2C) yielded a very similar pattern to
the
factor analysis from the first occasion; that is, the first factor
received high loadings from a small range of stop times and
small
deviations from ideal start times. The second factor received
high
loadings from a large number of food checks and small discrep-
ancies between specified and actual cooking times. The other
regularities shown across the three analyses shown in Table 2
include a tendency for a large number of table settings to relate
to
the first factor and small deviations from ideal start times to
relate
to the second factor. As discussed below, we interpret the first
factor as reflecting global aspects of planning, and the second
factor as reflecting local aspects of monitoring and task
execution.
In general, there are striking similarities in the components and
factors from all three occasions of testing (Tables 2A, 2B, 2C).
Test–retest reliability measures. Pearson product–moment
correlations were run between participants’ performance on
Break-
fast Task measures on the two occasions of testing, and these
values are shown in Table 5. Considering performance on the
six-screen version only, 39 participants completed all aspects of
the task on both occasions. Other participants completed
cooking
some but not all foods; these participants were dropped from
29. this
analysis. Test–retest correlations were significant for deviation
from ideal start times (0.48), number of table settings (0.76),
and
Table 4
Means (SDs) of Measures From the Breakfast Task and
Correlations Among These Measures (Experiment 2, Second
Occasion)
4A. Means (N � 51)
Table settings Food checks Discrepancy (s) Range (s) Deviation
(s)
16.0 (6.1) 18.4 (5.0) 14.9 (11.9) 20.7 (20.0) 20.4 (16.4)
4B. Correlations (N � 51)
Table settings Food checks Discrepancy Range Deviation
Table settings 1.00 �0.05 0.00 �0.34� �0.26
Food checks 1.00 �0.30� �0.19 �0.38��
Discrepancy 1.00 �0.22 0.12
Range 1.00 0.58��
Deviation 1.00
Note. 4A. Values for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviation are
medians. 4B. Values for Discrepancy, Range, and Deviations
used in correlations were log
medians (see text).
� Correlation significant at p � .05. �� Correlation significant
at p � .01.
30. Table 5
Test–Retest Reliability Measures
Breakfast measure p
Six-Screen version (N � 39)
Discrepancy of cooking times .22 .18
Range of stop times .24 .17
Deviation from ideal start time .48 .004
Number of table settings .76 �.001
Number of food checks .34 .03
Combined one-screen and six-screen versions (N � 27)
Discrepancy of cooking times .20 .34
Range of stop times .52 .01
Deviation from ideal start time .55 .004
Number of table settings .75 �.001
Number of food checks .34 .03
Note. Correlations significant at p � .05 are printed in bold
type.
258 ROSE, LUO, BIALYSTOK, HERING, LAU, AND CRAIK
number of food checks (0.34), although not for discrepancy and
range measures. Table 5 also shows the values calculated from
combined performance on the one-screen and six-screen
versions;
27 participants completed all aspects of both tests. The
combined
scores yielded a similar pattern, although now the range
measure
also gave a significant correlation (0.52). In one final analysis
we
31. correlated latent factor scores from the exploratory factor
analyses
between the first and second occasions. In the case of the first
latent factor, the value of r (n � 45) was
0.33, p � .03; for the
second latent factor, r(45) �
0.24, p � .05. The first factor thus
seems relatively stable, the second factor less so. One
possibility is
that the variance associated with the second component may
have
shifted between the first and second testing occasions as a result
of
the heterogeneity of experience between test and retest. In
general,
test–retest reliabilities for the Breakfast Task were significantly
positive if rather modest.
Breakfast performance in relation to EF and PM. We then
examined the relations between Breakfast Task measures
collected
on the first test occasion, and the EF and PM measures collected
on all 59 participants on the first occasion. We examined these
correlations using Pearson’s method among all variables (see
Table 6) and, as was done for the breakfast measures, we first
conducted separate PCA analyses of the EF and PM measures
and
then examined correlations between the resulting components
and
the Breakfast Task measures.
The PCA conducted on the five tasks tapping higher cognitive
functions including processing speed (digit-symbol
substitution),
working memory (n-back, Corsi block test), inhibition (Stroop
test), and reasoning (Raven’s) yielded one general component
32. that
accounted for 50% of the total variance. The component
loadings
of the five measures are presented in Table 7. Although these
tasks
measure a diverse set of abilities, we interpreted the variance in
common among the measures as capturing a general “executive
processing” factor, which we then used in subsequent analyses.
Inspection of the correlations among the different measures of
PM obtained from the Virtual Week task (regular event-related,
irregular event-related, regular time-related, irregular time-
related,
and time check tasks) revealed that the Virtual Week measures
were generally intercorrelated (see Table 6); they were then
sub-
mitted to a PCA with oblique rotation. This analysis yielded a
one-component structure that accounted for 55% of the
variance.
The component loadings are also shown in Table 7. Thus,
although
the different aspects of the VW task ostensibly measure
different
components of PM, we interpreted the common variance as re-
flecting a general PM ability.
We then correlated the EF components and the PM components
with the Breakfast measures taken on the first testing occasion
only (see Table 8). The EF component showed a significant
positive correlation with the number of table settings and
signifi-
cant negative correlations with range of stop times and
deviations
from ideal start times on the Breakfast Task. That is,
participants
34. Note. DigSymb � Digit-symbol test; Bf � breakfast; dev �
deviation; disc � discrepancy; Tabl � numbers of tables set;
VW � virtual week; RE �
regular event; RT � regular time; TC � time check; IE �
irregular event; IT � irregular time. Stroop, Bf range, Bf
deviation, and Bf discrepancy were
log transformed due to nonnormal distributions. Significant
correlations are bolded.
� p � .05. �� p � .01.
Table 7
Component Loadings for the EF and PM Measures
Component Loading
Measure EF PM
Digit Symbol .72 —
Stroop Effect �.30 —
N-back .73 —
Corsi blocks .82 —
Ravens .79 —
VW regular event — .85
VW irregular event — .80
VW regular time — .73
VW irregular time — .55
VW Time-check — .74
Note. VW � virtual week. Separate PCAs were done on the
executive
functions (EF) and prospective memory (PM) measures.
259COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BREAKFAST TASK
35. together this result suggests that superior EF is associated with
better global planning and more efficient management of
switch-
ing between the two main goals in the Breakfast Task, namely,
setting the table and cooking the foods.
The PM component showed only one significant correlation—a
negative relation to the deviation from ideal start time;
participants
who performed more accurately on the PM tasks were also more
likely to start each food at an ideal time. Thus, the PM variables
were also related to some degree to the first breakfast
component
shown in Table 2B. Table 8 also shows that the discrepancy in
cooking times and the number of food checks did not correlate
with either EF or PM. Inspection of the correlations in Table 6
reveals that discrepancy in cooking times correlated with
number
of food checks such that participants who checked the foods
more
often had a smaller discrepancy in cooking times. We have pre-
viously suggested that this combination signals close
monitoring
of cooking times and good local planning.
We then examined the correlations between the breakfast com-
ponents and the common EF and PM composite factors (see
Table
9). As suggested by the correlations on Table 8, the first
Breakfast
Task composite (BT1) correlated significantly with the EF com-
posite but the second Breakfast Task factor (BT2) did not
correlate
with either the EF or the PM factor, and was also independent
of
36. BT1 (r � .07). Additionally, the EF and PM components were
positively related, r � .37, p � .01. We can thus say that BT1
primarily reflects executive control, reasoning and working
mem-
ory functions (Digit-symbol, Stroop, Raven, Corsi, n-back).
Given
this set of relations and the make-up of BT1 (see Table 2) we
interpret the BT1 factor as an indicator of global planning.
Table
2 shows that BT2 relates strongly and consistently to number of
food checks and to the discrepancy between ideal and actual
cooking time—more checks result in smaller discrepancies. We
interpret this second factor as an indicator of local planning and
task completion that was, interestingly, unrelated to variation in
executive functions and higher-level planning in this sample.
Discussion
In their initial description and analysis of the Breakfast Task,
Craik and Bialystok (2006) concluded that the task provided
measures of global and local planning abilities, and that in turn
these abilities were related to individual differences in task
switch-
ing, working memory, and prospective memory. In general, the
present study confirmed these conclusions with fuller
supporting
data, but with the major exception that little evidence was found
for a prospective memory component in the Breakfast Task.
This
surprising finding is discussed later, but we first discuss the two
components revealed consistently by the PCA and factor
analyses
shown in Table 2.
These analyses revealed two separable components in breakfast
37. measures, each supported by a small number of underlying cog-
nitive processes. In both experiments, the first component
received
strong loadings from the range of stop times and deviation from
ideal start times, and a smaller loading from number of table
settings, reflecting participants’ efficiency to formulate a plan
and
switch between the two overall goals (Table 2A, B, C).
Experiment
2 showed that this component was correlated with the EF
compo-
nent abstracted from the executive function measures (see Table
9). Specifically, the EF component correlated reliably with
range
of stop times, deviation from ideal start times and number of
table
settings accomplished (see Table 8). In contrast, the second
com-
ponent received strong loadings from a large number of food
checks and the discrepancy from target cooking times,
reflecting
the ability to monitor cooking progress and stop cooking each
food
at the appropriate time. This component was independent of the
first (see Table 9) and was also unrelated to both EF and PM
composite factors (see Table 9). The two measures involved in
this
second component (checks and discrepancy) were also uncorre-
lated with EF and PM composites (see Table 8). The second
component thus appeared consistently in our three replications,
but was also consistently unrelated both to other cooking mea-
sures and to general cognitive activities. We have interpreted
this measure as reflecting the efficiency of monitoring cooking
progress and of stopping individual foods appropriately, but
with less relation to the efficiency of overall planning. We also
concede, however, that the second component may reflect fac-
38. tors specific to performing the Breakfast Task. It remains to be
seen whether individuals who score highly on this factor also
show good local planning abilities on other tasks.
The separation of the two Breakfast Task components is gener-
ally consistent with the analyses by Burgess et al. (2000) and
Logie
et al. (2011), whose SEM analyses revealed a separation
between
planning, the extent to which an individual’s plan reflects the
overall goal, and intent, the execution of the plan. Similarly,
our
breakfast measures reflected two separable components demon-
strating planning and task execution, respectively. A critical
fea-
ture of the Breakfast Task is the need to constantly consult
with,
and revise one’s plan during execution. For example, if a food
is
Table 9
Correlations Among Factor Scores (Ns for Each Correlation
in Brackets)
EF PM BT1 BT2
EF 1.00
PM 0.37 (49) 1.00
BT1 0.44 (42) 0.24 (49) 1.00
BT2 0.16 (42) 0.19 (49) 0.07 (51) 1.00
Note. Correlations significant at p � .01 are printed in bold. EF
� Factor
score for executive functions; PM � Factor score for
prospective memory;
BT1 � Breakfast Task, first factor; BT2 � Breakfast Task,
39. second factor.
Table 8
Correlations Between the EF and PM Components and the
Breakfast Measures
Component
EF PM
Breakfast measure
Number of table settings .55�� .23
Number of food checks .20 .10
Discrepancy cooking time �.18 �.21
Range of stop times �.45�� �.27
Deviation from ideal start time �.40�� �.36��
Note. EM � executive functions; PM � prospective memory.
� p � .05. �� p � .01.
260 ROSE, LUO, BIALYSTOK, HERING, LAU, AND CRAIK
started too early or too late, the participant must revise the
cooking
of subsequent foods accordingly to ensure that all foods will
finish
close together. Therefore, efficient performance of the
Breakfast
Task places a heavy load on maintaining and updating
information
in WM, particularly if the plan is weak or goes awry. Logie et
al.
(2011) also found that a measure of spatial WM predicted
perfor-
40. mance in a complex multitasking environment, in their case via
a
general memory factor. Logie and colleagues used deviation
from
ideal starting times from the Breakfast Task as a potential
predictor
of dual-task performance in their study, but found no significant
relations between deviation scores and other variables,
including
measures of WM. For unknown reasons this result differs from
the
present findings, where deviation correlated significantly with
Digit-symbol, Raven’s and the Corsi WM task (see Table 6). In
addition to a participant’s cognitive ability, various features of
the
particular task conditions will influence the need for more con-
trolled, strategic processing as opposed to a reliance on more
spontaneous, automatic processing (McDaniel & Einstein, 2000;
Rose et al., 2010).
The PCA used in Experiment 1 and the factor analyses used in
Experiment 2 yielded two components that were associated with
distinct underlying individual differences. As discussed previ-
ously, the first component is related to strong WM and EF
abilities.
The second component, with its pattern of many food checks
and
resultant small discrepancies between target and actual cooking
times, suggests an ability that focuses on specific, local aspects
of
the task, with less attention paid to the overall pattern of perfor-
mance. Parkinson’s patients have a tendency to focus on one
aspect of a task while neglecting other aspects (Gauntlett-
Gilbert,
Roberts, & Brown, 1999), and in a previous study we found that
patients with mild Parkinson’s disease showed significantly
41. smaller discrepancies in cooking times on the Breakfast Task
than
age-matched controls, at the expense of setting fewer tables
(Bialystok et al., 2008). Thus, the second component may
reflect
an ability that is effective for single focused tasks but is less
appropriate when tasks require attention to multiple
components.
One surprising finding in the present study was the absence of
a relationship between Breakfast Task components and measures
of prospective memory. Successful completion of the six-screen
version of the Breakfast Task requires timely switching between
table-setting and cooking the various foods; for this reason it
seemed that efficient starting and stopping cooking operations
should make heavy demands on PM (Craik & Bialystok, 2006).
Several factors may have contributed to this unexpected result.
The
first is that PM is assessed by only one other task—Virtual
Week—and it is possible that the type of PM measured by
Virtual
Week (where required actions are mostly cued by times on the
board or by specific event cards) is different from the uncued
PM
operations required by the Breakfast Task. In this sense, the
Breakfast Task requires more “self-initiated activity” than does
Virtual Week, and such activities are often central to PM
(Craik,
1983). Further, Table 6 shows that of the 25 correlations
between
the five Virtual Week measures and the five Breakfast Task
measures, one was a zero correlation and 22/24 of the remainder
were positive in the sense that Virtual Week measures tended to
relate to a large number of food checks and tables set, and to
small
values of range, discrepancy and deviation. Additionally, the
42. over-
all PM component correlated positively (although not signifi-
cantly) with both BT components (see Table 9), so it is perhaps
fair
to conclude that the Breakfast Task does exhibit some aspects
of
prospective memory as measured by the Virtual Week task. An-
other possibility is that the Breakfast Task does not in fact
provide
a good method for assessing differences in PM. Recall that par-
ticipants must switch between starting and stopping foods on
the
one hand and table-setting on the other, at intervals ranging be-
tween 30 sec and 2 min at most. Additionally, the fact that food
checks may be carried out at any time further reduces the
intervals
between cooking operations and setting the table. So the
require-
ment to “switch soon” is presumably kept in mind rather con-
stantly as a person performs the Breakfast Task, and the need to
retrieve a PM intention from outside current awareness is quite
small. Overall then, we conclude that the Breakfast Task
provides
estimates of both global planning (BT1) and local monitoring
and
task execution (BT2), but may also tap aspects of prospective
memory.
What do these results tell us about the cognitive structure of
complex planning behaviour? Perhaps the clearest conclusion is
that planning is indeed not a unitary construct (Burgess et al.,
2000, 2005; Craik & Bialystok, 2006; Logie et al., 2011). Our
data
showed not only that planning performance on the Breakfast
Task
43. is supported by multiple cognitive processes, but also that it can
be
separated into two major components, each of which is
supported
by a different set of processes. Nonetheless, our data show some
promise for the identification of common patterns across
different
types of planning tasks. First, our breakfast measures showed a
structure with separable components reflecting overall planning
efficiency and subtask management. Such a distinction is in line
with the one between “plan” and “intentionality” suggested by
Burgess et al. (2000) and by Logie et al. (2011), and is also
consistent with the suggestion that optimal outcome depends on
both efficient planning and successful execution. This suggests
that future assessments of this nature should employ a
framework
that includes both planning efficiency (how well the plans are
generated and revised to reflect the overall goal) and task-
management (how effectively people handle multiple subtasks
and
achieve subgoals).
Second, many have proposed that WM plays an important role
in generating, accessing, and revising plans (e.g., Cohen, 1996;
Gilhooly, 2005; Owen, 1997). Our data, along with other behav-
ioural evidence (Gilhooly, Wynn, Phillips, Logie, & Della Sala,
2002; Logie, Trawley, & Law, 2011; Phillips, Wynn, Gilhooly,
Della Sala, & Logie, 1999), is confirmatory of a relationship
between planning efficiency and aspects of WM functioning,
de-
spite great variety in the methods of assessment. Different tasks
may correlate with different WM measures; for example, visual
tasks such as Tower tasks engage mainly visuospatial WM
(Gilhooly et al., 2002). Errand tasks have many complex rules
to
remember and a map to navigate, and so load heavily on both
44. verbal and visuospatial WM capacity (Logie et al., 2011). In our
case, the individual correlations shown in Table 6 reveal that
the relation between the EF composite measure and BT1 (table
setting, range and deviation) is largely due to correlations with
visuospatial WM (Corsi test) as well as with Digit Symbol and
Raven’s matrices. Although precise relationships remain to be
specified, our suggestion is that WM as a general function of
holding and manipulating information in mind, presumably
contributes to a wide range of planning and multitask manage-
ment activities.
261COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BREAKFAST TASK
What are the implications of the present results for the use of
the
Breakfast Task as a means of assessing capabilities and deficits
in
planning and monitoring behaviour in everyday life? The Break-
fast Task has the advantage of simulating an everyday activity
that
participants readily understand; they also find the task engaging
and enjoyable to perform. One major contribution of the present
results is the demonstration of the task’s stable factor structure
(Table 2A, B, C); this point enables the Breakfast Task to assess
global planning and local monitoring separately. An initial indi-
cation of such an assessment application is given by a case
study
describing an individual who had moderately severe problems in
prospective memory, attributed to a deficit in strategic
monitoring
(West et al., 2007). In performing the Breakfast Task this
person
made fewer food checks and had larger discrepancies in cooking
times relative to a reference group, in line with the idea that she
45. has
a specific impairment in local monitoring. Her performance on
other Breakfast Task measures was normal. A recent study by
Tanguay, Davidson, Guerrero Nuñez, and Ferland (2014) tested
22
patients with acquired brain injury and 22 controls on the
Break-
fast Task, and found that the patients scored substantially lower
on
all measures. The authors also had patients cook a real meal,
with
the finding that patients’ own assessment of their cooking
ability
correlated significantly with overall performance on the
Breakfast
Task, although clinicians’ assessments of the patients’ real-meal
cooking skills did not correlate with the computer task. One
possibility here is that well-practiced skills, such as cooking a
meal, involve semiautomated routines that do not require on-
the-
spot planning and decision-making, and therefore do not tap the
more “fluid intelligence” aspects needed to perform a novel
com-
plex task. We have also shown that the Breakfast Task is
sensitive
to normal aging; older adults performed less efficiently on all
five
Breakfast Task measures compared to younger adults (Craik &
Bialystok, 2006). As mentioned previously, Parkinson’s patients
performed well on local monitoring but less well on overall
plan-
ning measures (Bialystok et al., 2008). Finally, we have shown
that
older bilingual participants are significantly superior to
monolin-
gual counterparts at switching appropriately between table-
46. setting
and cooking operations (Craik & Bialystok, 2006). In overview,
evidence for the relation between the Breakfast Task and real-
life
planning abilities is still scanty, and one difficulty in this
regard
may be that all tasks, both lab-based and in real life, require a
combination of abilities that is rather specific to each task.
How-
ever, we are hopeful that the Breakfast Task has the potential to
assess two components of planning, and to provide independent
measures of these components.
In summary, this article reported a study whose purpose was to
assess and interpret measures from the Breakfast Task, a labora-
tory task designed to provide measures of planning, working
memory, and task switching. The task involves rules and serial
steps that reflect those required in real life meal preparation,
and is
therefore ecologically valid. The main outcome measures are
RTs
and proportions that may be applied to a wide range of
populations
and may be sensitive to various neuropsychological
impairments.
The present study clarifies the links between Breakfast Task
mea-
sures on the one hand and higher cognitive processes such as
WM,
processing speed, reasoning, monitoring, and task switching on
the
other. The results thus provide guidelines for assessments of
these
processes in ecologically valid settings, and the task itself
provides
47. a means for an enjoyable and engaging assessment of everyday
planning behaviour.
Résumé
La Breakfast Task (Craik & Bialystok, 2006) est une tâche
infor-
matisée qui simule la planification et la surveillance des
préparatifs
d’un petit-déjeuner, une tâche quotidienne importante pour
l’autonomie fonctionnelle. Dans l’Expérience 1, on a demandé à
28 adultes de réaliser la Breakfast Task, et les mesures obtenues
ont été soumises à une analyse en composantes principales en
vue
de déterminer la structure des processus cognitifs impliqués.
L’analyse a révélé une structure à deux composantes, qui com-
prendrait la planification globale et des capacités de contrôle
local.
Dans l’Expérience 2, on a procédé à une validation croisée de la
structure du rendement à la Breakfast Task au moyen d’un
nouvel
échantillon de 59 adultes plus vieux, en santé, à qui on a aussi
demandé de réaliser des tests évaluant la mémoire de travail, la
vitesse de traitement, l’inhibition, le raisonnement et la
mémoire
prospective. L’analyse factorielle a révélé que le volet de
planifi-
cation globale dans le cadre de la Breakfast Task était fortement
corrélé avec des différences individuelles dans les fonctions
exécu-
tives, mais que le volet de contrôle local était indépendant de
ces
fonctions. La Breakfast Task constitue un outil de d’évaluation
rapide, agréable et réaliste de la planification complexe au
quoti-
dien et de la surveillance ainsi que de leurs processus sous-
48. jacents,
tels que la mémoire de travail et les fonctions exécutives.
Mots-clés : planification, contrôle, mémoire de travail, mémoire
prospective, processus exécutifs.
References
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Stefurak, T. (2008). Planning
and task
management in Parkinson’s disease: Differential emphasis in
dual-task
performance. Journal of the International Neuropsychological
Society,
14, 257–265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617708080296
Brandt, J., Spencer, M., & Folstein, M. (1988). The telephone
interview for
cognitive status. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and
Behavioral
Neurology, 1, 111–117.
Burgess, P. W., Simons, J. S., Coates, L. M.-A., & Channon, S.
(2005). The
search for specific planning processes. In R. Morris & G. Ward
(Eds.),
The cognitive psychology of planning (pp. 199–227). New
York, NY:
Psychology Press.
Burgess, P. W., Veitch, E., de Lacy Costello, A., & Shallice, T.
(2000). The
cognitive and neuroanatomical correlates of multitasking.
Neuropsycho-
logia, 38, 848–863. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0028-
3932(99)00134-7
49. Cohen, G. (1996). Memory in the real world (2nd ed.). Hove,
UK: Psy-
chology Press.
Craik, F. I. M. (1983). On the transfer of information from
temporary to
permanent memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of
London Series B, Biological Sciences, 301, 341–359.
http://dx.doi.org/
10.1098/rstb.1983.0059
Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2006). Planning and task
management in
older adults: Cooking breakfast. Memory & Cognition, 34,
1236–1249.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03193268
Desmond, D. W., Tatemichi, T. K., & Hanzawa, L. (1994). The
telephone
interview for cognitive status (TICS): Reliability and validity in
a stroke
sample. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 9, 803–
807.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/gps.930091006
Gauntlett-Gilbert, J., Roberts, R. C., & Brown, V. J. (1999).
Mechanisms
underlying attentional set-shifting in Parkinson’s disease.
Neuropsycho-
logia, 37, 605–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0028-
3932(98)00049-9
262 ROSE, LUO, BIALYSTOK, HERING, LAU, AND CRAIK
50. Gilhooly, K. J. (2005). Working memory and planning. In R.
Morris & G.
Ward (Eds.), The cognitive psychology of planning (pp. 71–88).
New
York, NY: Psychology Press.
Gilhooly, K. J., Wynn, V., Phillips, L. H., Logie, R. H., & Della
Sala, S.
(2002). Visuo-spatial and verbal working memory in the five-
disc Tower
of London task: An individual differences approach. Thinking &
Rea-
soning, 8, 165–178.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13546780244000006
Kerr, S. (1991). Prospective memory, aging, and lapses of
intention.
Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Canada.
Logie, R. H., Trawley, S., & Law, A. (2011). Multitasking:
Multiple,
domain-specific cognitive functions in a virtual environment.
Memory &
Cognition, 39, 1561–1574. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13421-
011-
0120-1
McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and
automatic
processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess
framework.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, S127–S144.
http://dx.doi.org/
51. 10.1002/acp.775
Milner, B. (1971). Interhemispheric differences in the
localization of
psychological processes in man. British Medical Bulletin, 27,
272–277.
Morris, R., & Ward, G. (Eds.). (2005). The cognitive
psychology of
planning. New York: Psychology Press.
Owen, A. M. (1997). Cognitive planning in humans:
Neuropsychological,
neuroanatomical and neuropharmacological perspectives.
Progress in
Neurobiology, 53, 431– 450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-
0082(97)00042-7
Owen, A. M. (2005). Cognitive planning in humans: New
insights from the
Tower of London (TOL) task. In R. Morris & G. Ward (Eds.),
The
cognitive psychology of planning (pp. 135–151). New York,
NY: Psy-
chology Press.
Phillips, L. H., Wynn, V., Gilhooly, K. J., Della Sala, S., &
Logie, R. H.
(1999). The role of memory in the Tower of London task.
Memory, 7,
209–231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/741944066
Raven, J. C., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. (1996). Manual for
Raven’s
Progressive Matrices and Mill Hill Vocabulary Scales. Oxford,
UK:
52. Oxford Psychologists Press.
Rendell, P. G., & Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Virtual Week and
actual week:
Age-related differences in prospective memory. Applied
Cognitive Psy-
chology, 14, S43–S62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/acp.770
Rendell, P. G., & Henry, J. D. (2009). A review of Virtual Week
for
prospective memory assessment: Clinical implications. Brain
Impair-
ment, 10, 14–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/brim.10.1.14
Rose, N. S., Rendell, P. G., McDaniel, M. A., Aberle, I., &
Kliegel, M.
(2010). Age and individual differences in prospective memory
during a
“Virtual Week”: The roles of working memory, vigilance, task
regular-
ity, and cue focality. Psychology and Aging, 25, 595–605.
http://dx.doi
.org/10.1037/a0019771
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal
reactions.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662.
http://dx.doi.org/
10.1037/h0054651
Tanguay, A. N., Davidson, P. S. R., Guerrero Nuñez, K. V., &
Ferland,
M. B. (2014). Cooking breakfast after a brain injury. Frontiers
in
Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 272.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014
53. .00272
Ward, G., & Morris, R. (2005). Introduction to the psychology
of planning.
In R. Morris & G. Ward (Eds.), The cognitive psychology of
planning
(pp. 1–34). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (3rd
ed.). San
Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment.
West, R., McNerney, M. W., & Krauss, I. (2007). Impaired
strategic
monitoring as the locus of a focal prospective memory deficit.
Neuro-
case, 13, 115–126.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13554790701399247
Zachary, R. A. (1986). Shipley Institute of Living Scale:
Revised manual.
Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Received October 25, 2014
Accepted March 16, 2015 �
263COGNITIVE PROCESSES IN THE BREAKFAST TASK
Describe at least three ways that factors in the external
environment influence employee behavior. If you were an HRD
professional involved with an action team that was charged with
evaluating the likely success of a proposed downsizing of your
organization, what factors would you want to consider in
making this recommendation? That is, based on what you know
of HRD to this point, how can HRD professionals impact the
54. likely success or failure of this action?
External factors that affect the employees’ behavior are:
• Economic factor: If the economy is booming and employees
have plenty of jobs, then the behaviour at the work would be
overall happier. On the contrary, there will be fear and
anxiousness among employees if the economy is facing
recession. That anxiety leads to lower productivity and hamper
employee performance.
• Technological factor: Day by day advancement in the
technology made employees feel regressive and less motivated.
Employees resist changing and avoiding learning new things. To
avoid this situation, a manager should impart timely updated
training to employees.
• Competition in Industry: Increased competition within an
industry may raise questions on the survival of the company
which leads to frustration and less motivated employees.
However, employees feel motivated in a stable industry where it
is easy to attract customers.
Explain the role that trainability plays in the effectiveness of an
HRD program or intervention. Briefly describe the options
available to assess the trainability of employees.
Following are the roles of the trainability in the effectiveness of
an HRD intervention:
• The foremost role of the trainability is to place the trained
employees who are self-motivated so they can perform well
without wastage of time and resources.
• Another role of trainability in the effectiveness of an HRD
program is to increase the numbers of trainees who take less
time in the training period or whom company have to incur less
expense.