The document describes a research project called Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE) that aimed to accelerate the development of formal thinking in middle and high school students through science education. Over two years, up to 30 intervention lessons relating to formal thinking schemata were incorporated into science courses in eight British schools. Boys aged 12 and up who received the lessons showed significantly greater gains on Piagetian tests compared to control classes, improving from the 49th to the 26th percentile. Some girls and younger students also showed gains. In one school, gains were maintained one year after the lessons ended. The interventions may need to be accompanied by teacher training to change teaching styles to support students' increased abilities.
The document summarizes the development and purpose of the Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). It was created to assess students' deep and surface learning approaches using fewer items than previous versions. The revised questionnaire was tested on students in Hong Kong and showed acceptable reliability and validity. The goal was to create a simple tool teachers could use to evaluate their own teaching and students' learning approaches.
This document provides guidance for teachers on effective instructional practices for teaching mathematics to students with learning disabilities or difficulties learning mathematics. It identifies seven effective practices supported by research: 1) using explicit instruction regularly, 2) teaching with multiple instructional examples, 3) having students verbalize decisions and solutions, 4) teaching step-by-step problem solving strategies, 5) using visual representations, 6) providing students with opportunities for guided practice, and 7) conducting frequent reviews of content. The document summarizes evidence from a meta-analysis and the National Mathematics Advisory Panel report supporting the use of these practices.
The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Cognition in Children: A Meta-...videosplay360
The purpose of this study was to quantitatively combine and examine the re- sults of studies pertaining to physical activity and cognition in children. Stud- ies meeting the inclusion criteria were coded based on design and descriptive characteristics, subject characteristics, activity characteristics, and cognitive assessment method.
This document provides background information on a study examining the effects of incorporating cross-lateral movement patterns into math instruction. It discusses research showing links between physical activity, brain development, and cognition. The study aims to test if including a daily cross-lateral movement routine before math lessons improves 3rd grade students' math accuracy and fluency on weekly timed tests. It outlines the study design, participants, researchers, purpose, research question, definitions of key terms, and rationale for exploring this type of bodily-kinesthetic intervention.
This document discusses the construction and verification of norms for Raven's Progressive Matrices Test using a sample of students in La Plata, Argentina. It finds an increase in scores over time, known as the Flynn Effect, when compared to previous norms from 1964. It also finds differences in mean scores between age groups, education types, and for students in a Fine Arts program. The goals were to update the norms for the test using local data and compare results to previous norms and between demographic groups.
This study investigated the effects of incorporating creative activities into chemistry lessons on high school students' higher-order thinking skills in the Philippines. Sixty students were randomly assigned to either an instruction with creative activities group or an instruction with no creative activities group. Both groups took a pre-test and post-test to measure higher-order thinking skills. The study found no significant difference in post-test scores or gain scores between the two groups, suggesting that creative activities did not improve higher-order thinking skills more than traditional instruction alone.
Teachers analyzed plants and animals in pond mud and water samples from a pond to understand how the ecosystem was affected by humans. Students collected water samples from the pond during a problem-based learning summer camp led by elementary teachers. The document discusses the basics of problem-based learning, including that it involves students solving open-ended, real-world problems over time like scientists. Research shows problem-based learning improves student achievement, performance, motivation, and self-regulated learning compared to traditional instruction.
This study explored the effectiveness of an inquiry-based laboratory unit on cellulase enzyme for undergraduate biotechnology students. Students participated in guided and open inquiry experiments and assessments that showed they gained knowledge of enzyme-substrate interactions and developed skills like critical thinking and applying knowledge to industrial applications. Students also responded positively to the teaching strategy and developed skills in asking questions, problem solving, drawing conclusions, and communicating, showing the benefits of inquiry-based science learning.
The document summarizes the development and purpose of the Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). It was created to assess students' deep and surface learning approaches using fewer items than previous versions. The revised questionnaire was tested on students in Hong Kong and showed acceptable reliability and validity. The goal was to create a simple tool teachers could use to evaluate their own teaching and students' learning approaches.
This document provides guidance for teachers on effective instructional practices for teaching mathematics to students with learning disabilities or difficulties learning mathematics. It identifies seven effective practices supported by research: 1) using explicit instruction regularly, 2) teaching with multiple instructional examples, 3) having students verbalize decisions and solutions, 4) teaching step-by-step problem solving strategies, 5) using visual representations, 6) providing students with opportunities for guided practice, and 7) conducting frequent reviews of content. The document summarizes evidence from a meta-analysis and the National Mathematics Advisory Panel report supporting the use of these practices.
The Relationship Between Physical Activity and Cognition in Children: A Meta-...videosplay360
The purpose of this study was to quantitatively combine and examine the re- sults of studies pertaining to physical activity and cognition in children. Stud- ies meeting the inclusion criteria were coded based on design and descriptive characteristics, subject characteristics, activity characteristics, and cognitive assessment method.
This document provides background information on a study examining the effects of incorporating cross-lateral movement patterns into math instruction. It discusses research showing links between physical activity, brain development, and cognition. The study aims to test if including a daily cross-lateral movement routine before math lessons improves 3rd grade students' math accuracy and fluency on weekly timed tests. It outlines the study design, participants, researchers, purpose, research question, definitions of key terms, and rationale for exploring this type of bodily-kinesthetic intervention.
This document discusses the construction and verification of norms for Raven's Progressive Matrices Test using a sample of students in La Plata, Argentina. It finds an increase in scores over time, known as the Flynn Effect, when compared to previous norms from 1964. It also finds differences in mean scores between age groups, education types, and for students in a Fine Arts program. The goals were to update the norms for the test using local data and compare results to previous norms and between demographic groups.
This study investigated the effects of incorporating creative activities into chemistry lessons on high school students' higher-order thinking skills in the Philippines. Sixty students were randomly assigned to either an instruction with creative activities group or an instruction with no creative activities group. Both groups took a pre-test and post-test to measure higher-order thinking skills. The study found no significant difference in post-test scores or gain scores between the two groups, suggesting that creative activities did not improve higher-order thinking skills more than traditional instruction alone.
Teachers analyzed plants and animals in pond mud and water samples from a pond to understand how the ecosystem was affected by humans. Students collected water samples from the pond during a problem-based learning summer camp led by elementary teachers. The document discusses the basics of problem-based learning, including that it involves students solving open-ended, real-world problems over time like scientists. Research shows problem-based learning improves student achievement, performance, motivation, and self-regulated learning compared to traditional instruction.
This study explored the effectiveness of an inquiry-based laboratory unit on cellulase enzyme for undergraduate biotechnology students. Students participated in guided and open inquiry experiments and assessments that showed they gained knowledge of enzyme-substrate interactions and developed skills like critical thinking and applying knowledge to industrial applications. Students also responded positively to the teaching strategy and developed skills in asking questions, problem solving, drawing conclusions, and communicating, showing the benefits of inquiry-based science learning.
This document discusses applying Jean Piaget's cognitive development theories to teaching mathematics to first graders. It summarizes Piaget's four stages of development and how they relate to first grade students, who are transitioning between the preoperational and concrete operational stages. It then analyzes three Texas mathematics standards and how Piaget's theories, such as the concepts of conservation and part-whole relationships, can inform teaching strategies to help students master skills like number sense, addition/subtraction, and length measurement. The goal is to provide concrete experiences that help students progress from preoperational to concrete thinking.
Project Opera (Operation Rational): A Tool In Bridging The Learning GAPS In F...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study was conducted to determine the Mathematical performance of the students. The
study aimed to evaluate the effect of project opera in the mathematical performance of the students during pretest and post-test performance in fractions. The study employed the quasi -experimental one group-pre-test-posttest research design. The paired t-test was employed to establish the existence of significant difference between
pre-and post-test scores in fractions.
Analysis of Elementary Science Teaching Package Activities in Bangladesh: A f...Aquarius31
The document describes a study that analyzed science process skills (SPS) in teaching package (TP) activities for elementary science in Bangladesh. The study identified 12 of 13 SPS in the TP activities across grades 3 to 5, with observing, communicating, inferring and predicting being most common. While basic SPS were emphasized in all grades, integrated SPS were not increasingly promoted from grade 3 to grade 5 as expected based on literature.
Summary of evaluation and research studies on effects of instrumental enrichmentKaryl Haden
I know both this article and the Professional Development Today issue that I am about to upload are longer, however, they do a nice job of describing the Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment program that is the basis of everything that we do at Ascent International Learning Center. Enjoy! Please message me if you have questions.
Assessing Skills Of Identifying Variables And Formulating Hypotheses Using Sc...Anita Miller
This study assessed students' science process skills of identifying variables and formulating hypotheses using scenario-based multiple-choice questions. The questions described experiments with two parts that examined the effect of different manipulated variables on the same dependent variable within the same experiment. Students' scores on questions about the first and second parts were compared and found to be statistically significantly different, indicating some students were affected by the changing roles of variables between experiment parts. The study aimed to investigate if student performance changes when asked about experiments where different manipulated variables affect the dependent variable in different stages compared to traditional single-stage experiment questions.
The document discusses various curriculum theories that can help educators improve student learning and achievement. It describes the formal, informal, and hidden curriculums that make up a school's curriculum. It also discusses curriculum alignment theory and the importance of aligning what is taught, tested, and contained in instructional materials. The document provides examples of curriculum processes and theories like multiple intelligence theory that recognize different types of student intelligence.
An innovative kindergarten education program called Tools of the Mind was tested that embedded support for self-regulation into learning activities. A cluster randomized controlled trial found it improved children's executive functions, reasoning, attention control, and stress response physiology. It also improved reading, vocabulary, and math, with larger effects in high-poverty schools, suggesting focusing on self-regulation can help close the achievement gap.
This document discusses a study on the influence of hands-on experimentation in developing science skills among science major students. It provides background on the importance of engaging students in science education through inquiry-based learning and apprenticeship models. The study aims to determine the impact of hands-on experiments on developing skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and data analysis. It also seeks to identify the specific experiments conducted, skills developed, and whether there is a significant relationship between experiments and skills. Based on the findings, the study will propose an intervention plan to optimize science education strategies.
Importance of Physical Activities in Relation to Academic MalikPinckney86
Importance of Physical Activities in Relation to Academic Achievement
Southeastern Oklahoma State University
1
Importance of Physical Activities in Relation to Academic Achievement
Introduction
Schools have served many purposes throughout history. They serve to teach children to
become successful adults. Over time the idea of what it takes to make a student a successful adult has
changed. Schools have been forced to measure students with tests instead of the whole child. Students
are evaluated year after year on their academic achievement through standardized tests. Teachers are
now judged on how well their pupils do on tests whether it be on a nationally standardized test or
benchmark testing in the classroom. Since testing will not go away, teachers must find ways that
improve the way students retain information. Physical activity supports developmental, emotional, and
cognitive growth.
Physical activity helps students develop fine and gross motor skills. Typical recess activities such
as monkey bars, pumping legs on a swing, throwing balls all help develop motor skills that are needed in
the classroom. Hand eye coordination that is developed from these physical activities helps students
track when reading, take notes, and holding a pencil. When recess is cut, these activities either suffer or
the teacher must find time in their already hectic schedule to work these activities into the curriculum
(Franxman & Gilbert, 2018).
Many playground activities lead to social and emotional development. Students are put into
situations that are not guided by a teacher and are tested to make their own decisions. Peer
relationships are developed through physical activity (Murray & Ramstetter, 2018). This “free” time
helps develop a student’s ability to communicate, negotiate, and problem solve, all of which are needed
to contribute to society (Murray & Ramstetter, 2018).
School days are long. Students are expected to sit for long periods of time focusing on specific
content. When students are given breaks to move, different motions fire up neurons in their brains.
Students are more attentive to their lessons after a chance to engage in physical activity (Murray &
2
Ramstetter, 2018). The physical activity helps keep the brain active by giving one area a chance to rest
and recharge, while another area of the brain develops other skills.
Physical activity is important to the development of the whole child. Schools have drifted away
from making physical activity or play a priority in favor of structured academic time. This paper will look
at the role physical activity plays in academic achievement. It will show if physical activity is improving
test scores, curbing behavioral issues, and encouraging student learning by using physical activity in
unstructured activity, using set programs, and as motivation for cognitive improvement.
Literature Review
This ...
PPTGROUP_3_PHYSICS TEACHING AND LEARNING.pdfAyuArrahmah
This document discusses the importance of developing students' science process skills (KPS) in learning science. It outlines that KPS includes basic skills like observing, measuring, and interpreting data, as well as more advanced skills like experimentation, classification, and communication. The document also notes some challenges in teaching KPS, such as changing teaching habits and a lack of learning resources. Developing KPS in students provides benefits like improving critical thinking, scientific literacy, and lifelong learning abilities. Basic KPS form the foundation for more integrated science process skills.
See, Do, then Teach - To See, Show-Do with Feedback, Teach with Feedback-Refl...Poh-Sun Goh
Using Digital Repositories to Support Mastery Training and Deliberate Practice in Radiology Training and Medical Education Faculty Development
See also examples below:
http://www.ajnr.org/
(see Case Collections)
https://www.nejm.org/multimedia/images-in-clinical-medicine?query=main_nav_lg
(NEJM, see Images in Clinical Medicine)
http://casereports.bmj.com/collections/radiology2
http://www.radiologycases.com/index.php/radiologycases
https://radiopaedia.org/
This document provides an overview of curriculum theory and key concepts related to curriculum. It discusses different types of curriculum, including formal, informal, and hidden curriculum. It also describes several curriculum theories and models, such as curriculum alignment theory, multiple intelligence theory, and personal practical knowledge. The document aims to expose educators to diverse curriculum theories that influence today's educational systems.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
An Arithmetic Verbal Problem Solving Model For Learning Disabled StudentsSandra Long
This study examined an instructional approach for teaching arithmetic word problem solving to 60 fifth and sixth grade students with learning disabilities. The experimental group received direct instruction twice a week for six weeks using a systematic problem solving model involving scripted steps and prompt cards. This group significantly outperformed the control group on a post-test measuring different problem types. The findings suggest that learning disabled students can improve their problem solving skills through explicit instruction in strategies and the use of calculators.
This is a North Central University essay about synthesizing, critiqueing, and interpreting educational neuroscience literature.
Educational neuroscience is an emerging field of study with foundations in neuroscience, cognitive science, biology, developmental psychology, education, and other related disciplines (Ansari, & Coch, 2006; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009). Although literature for the proposed research is limited, the inquiry will explore the development of adult metacognition from the context of cognitive science and neurosciences. The primary aim is to discover if cognitive processes allow metacognition to increase naturally with age. Findings would inform educational practices as well as bridge the gap between education and neuroscience disciplines. Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, and Sejnowski (2009) noted that the human brain must be adaptable with plasticity to prepare our bodies for quick responses to external and internal issues (Neural Plasticity, p. 7). The essay is written in APA format, includes references, and has been graded by an instructor (A).
39Chapter 7Theories of TeachingIntroductionTheories of l.docxlorainedeserre
This document summarizes theories of teaching from several influential learning theorists. It discusses how theorists like Thorndike, Guthrie, Skinner, Hull, Tolman, and Gagné viewed the role of the teacher based on their behavioral and cognitive learning theories derived from animal and child studies. They generally saw teaching as managing external conditions to ensure specified behavioral changes in learners. The document then contrasts this with theories of teaching from adult learning theorists like Rogers, who rejected the notion that teaching is controlling learning and saw the teacher's role differently.
This document describes the development and validation of a new parent report measure called the Salience, Organization and Management of Time Scale (SOMTS) to assess temporal self-regulation in children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in everyday contexts. The measure was developed in three phases: item generation from existing scales and parent interviews, preliminary validation, and analysis of the factor structure. Testing of the scale on 194 parents of children with ADHD and 142 parents of children without ADHD found a three factor structure related to verbalizing temporal structures, temporal self-regulation, and conceptualizing and sequencing time. Children with ADHD scored significantly lower on all three factors, demonstrating the scale's ability to discriminate between children
This document summarizes a study on misconceptions in chemistry among freshmen students at Mindanao University of Science and Technology (MUST). The study aims to determine which chemistry topics students have misconceptions about, the reasons for these misconceptions, and how misconceptions compare between male and female students. It outlines the problem statement, research questions, hypothesis, significance of the study, assumptions, limitations, and definition of key terms. The theoretical framework discusses prior research on students' understanding of concepts like solutions, molecular models, and multiple representations.
Fast Paper Writing Service, 11 Research Paper Writing IdeasSteven Wallach
This document provides instructions for using a paper writing service called HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content to meet customer needs.
1. The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a 'Write My Paper For Me' request on the HelpWriting.net site. It outlines a 5-step process: creating an account, submitting a request form, reviewing writer bids, authorizing payment, and requesting revisions if needed.
2. Writers on the site utilize a bidding system, and customers can choose a writer based on qualifications, order history, and feedback. The site promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
3. Customers can request multiple revisions to ensure satisfaction with their completed paper.
More Related Content
Similar to Accelerating The Development Of Formal Thinking In Middle And High School Students
This document discusses applying Jean Piaget's cognitive development theories to teaching mathematics to first graders. It summarizes Piaget's four stages of development and how they relate to first grade students, who are transitioning between the preoperational and concrete operational stages. It then analyzes three Texas mathematics standards and how Piaget's theories, such as the concepts of conservation and part-whole relationships, can inform teaching strategies to help students master skills like number sense, addition/subtraction, and length measurement. The goal is to provide concrete experiences that help students progress from preoperational to concrete thinking.
Project Opera (Operation Rational): A Tool In Bridging The Learning GAPS In F...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study was conducted to determine the Mathematical performance of the students. The
study aimed to evaluate the effect of project opera in the mathematical performance of the students during pretest and post-test performance in fractions. The study employed the quasi -experimental one group-pre-test-posttest research design. The paired t-test was employed to establish the existence of significant difference between
pre-and post-test scores in fractions.
Analysis of Elementary Science Teaching Package Activities in Bangladesh: A f...Aquarius31
The document describes a study that analyzed science process skills (SPS) in teaching package (TP) activities for elementary science in Bangladesh. The study identified 12 of 13 SPS in the TP activities across grades 3 to 5, with observing, communicating, inferring and predicting being most common. While basic SPS were emphasized in all grades, integrated SPS were not increasingly promoted from grade 3 to grade 5 as expected based on literature.
Summary of evaluation and research studies on effects of instrumental enrichmentKaryl Haden
I know both this article and the Professional Development Today issue that I am about to upload are longer, however, they do a nice job of describing the Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment program that is the basis of everything that we do at Ascent International Learning Center. Enjoy! Please message me if you have questions.
Assessing Skills Of Identifying Variables And Formulating Hypotheses Using Sc...Anita Miller
This study assessed students' science process skills of identifying variables and formulating hypotheses using scenario-based multiple-choice questions. The questions described experiments with two parts that examined the effect of different manipulated variables on the same dependent variable within the same experiment. Students' scores on questions about the first and second parts were compared and found to be statistically significantly different, indicating some students were affected by the changing roles of variables between experiment parts. The study aimed to investigate if student performance changes when asked about experiments where different manipulated variables affect the dependent variable in different stages compared to traditional single-stage experiment questions.
The document discusses various curriculum theories that can help educators improve student learning and achievement. It describes the formal, informal, and hidden curriculums that make up a school's curriculum. It also discusses curriculum alignment theory and the importance of aligning what is taught, tested, and contained in instructional materials. The document provides examples of curriculum processes and theories like multiple intelligence theory that recognize different types of student intelligence.
An innovative kindergarten education program called Tools of the Mind was tested that embedded support for self-regulation into learning activities. A cluster randomized controlled trial found it improved children's executive functions, reasoning, attention control, and stress response physiology. It also improved reading, vocabulary, and math, with larger effects in high-poverty schools, suggesting focusing on self-regulation can help close the achievement gap.
This document discusses a study on the influence of hands-on experimentation in developing science skills among science major students. It provides background on the importance of engaging students in science education through inquiry-based learning and apprenticeship models. The study aims to determine the impact of hands-on experiments on developing skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and data analysis. It also seeks to identify the specific experiments conducted, skills developed, and whether there is a significant relationship between experiments and skills. Based on the findings, the study will propose an intervention plan to optimize science education strategies.
Importance of Physical Activities in Relation to Academic MalikPinckney86
Importance of Physical Activities in Relation to Academic Achievement
Southeastern Oklahoma State University
1
Importance of Physical Activities in Relation to Academic Achievement
Introduction
Schools have served many purposes throughout history. They serve to teach children to
become successful adults. Over time the idea of what it takes to make a student a successful adult has
changed. Schools have been forced to measure students with tests instead of the whole child. Students
are evaluated year after year on their academic achievement through standardized tests. Teachers are
now judged on how well their pupils do on tests whether it be on a nationally standardized test or
benchmark testing in the classroom. Since testing will not go away, teachers must find ways that
improve the way students retain information. Physical activity supports developmental, emotional, and
cognitive growth.
Physical activity helps students develop fine and gross motor skills. Typical recess activities such
as monkey bars, pumping legs on a swing, throwing balls all help develop motor skills that are needed in
the classroom. Hand eye coordination that is developed from these physical activities helps students
track when reading, take notes, and holding a pencil. When recess is cut, these activities either suffer or
the teacher must find time in their already hectic schedule to work these activities into the curriculum
(Franxman & Gilbert, 2018).
Many playground activities lead to social and emotional development. Students are put into
situations that are not guided by a teacher and are tested to make their own decisions. Peer
relationships are developed through physical activity (Murray & Ramstetter, 2018). This “free” time
helps develop a student’s ability to communicate, negotiate, and problem solve, all of which are needed
to contribute to society (Murray & Ramstetter, 2018).
School days are long. Students are expected to sit for long periods of time focusing on specific
content. When students are given breaks to move, different motions fire up neurons in their brains.
Students are more attentive to their lessons after a chance to engage in physical activity (Murray &
2
Ramstetter, 2018). The physical activity helps keep the brain active by giving one area a chance to rest
and recharge, while another area of the brain develops other skills.
Physical activity is important to the development of the whole child. Schools have drifted away
from making physical activity or play a priority in favor of structured academic time. This paper will look
at the role physical activity plays in academic achievement. It will show if physical activity is improving
test scores, curbing behavioral issues, and encouraging student learning by using physical activity in
unstructured activity, using set programs, and as motivation for cognitive improvement.
Literature Review
This ...
PPTGROUP_3_PHYSICS TEACHING AND LEARNING.pdfAyuArrahmah
This document discusses the importance of developing students' science process skills (KPS) in learning science. It outlines that KPS includes basic skills like observing, measuring, and interpreting data, as well as more advanced skills like experimentation, classification, and communication. The document also notes some challenges in teaching KPS, such as changing teaching habits and a lack of learning resources. Developing KPS in students provides benefits like improving critical thinking, scientific literacy, and lifelong learning abilities. Basic KPS form the foundation for more integrated science process skills.
See, Do, then Teach - To See, Show-Do with Feedback, Teach with Feedback-Refl...Poh-Sun Goh
Using Digital Repositories to Support Mastery Training and Deliberate Practice in Radiology Training and Medical Education Faculty Development
See also examples below:
http://www.ajnr.org/
(see Case Collections)
https://www.nejm.org/multimedia/images-in-clinical-medicine?query=main_nav_lg
(NEJM, see Images in Clinical Medicine)
http://casereports.bmj.com/collections/radiology2
http://www.radiologycases.com/index.php/radiologycases
https://radiopaedia.org/
This document provides an overview of curriculum theory and key concepts related to curriculum. It discusses different types of curriculum, including formal, informal, and hidden curriculum. It also describes several curriculum theories and models, such as curriculum alignment theory, multiple intelligence theory, and personal practical knowledge. The document aims to expose educators to diverse curriculum theories that influence today's educational systems.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
An Arithmetic Verbal Problem Solving Model For Learning Disabled StudentsSandra Long
This study examined an instructional approach for teaching arithmetic word problem solving to 60 fifth and sixth grade students with learning disabilities. The experimental group received direct instruction twice a week for six weeks using a systematic problem solving model involving scripted steps and prompt cards. This group significantly outperformed the control group on a post-test measuring different problem types. The findings suggest that learning disabled students can improve their problem solving skills through explicit instruction in strategies and the use of calculators.
This is a North Central University essay about synthesizing, critiqueing, and interpreting educational neuroscience literature.
Educational neuroscience is an emerging field of study with foundations in neuroscience, cognitive science, biology, developmental psychology, education, and other related disciplines (Ansari, & Coch, 2006; Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009). Although literature for the proposed research is limited, the inquiry will explore the development of adult metacognition from the context of cognitive science and neurosciences. The primary aim is to discover if cognitive processes allow metacognition to increase naturally with age. Findings would inform educational practices as well as bridge the gap between education and neuroscience disciplines. Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, and Sejnowski (2009) noted that the human brain must be adaptable with plasticity to prepare our bodies for quick responses to external and internal issues (Neural Plasticity, p. 7). The essay is written in APA format, includes references, and has been graded by an instructor (A).
39Chapter 7Theories of TeachingIntroductionTheories of l.docxlorainedeserre
This document summarizes theories of teaching from several influential learning theorists. It discusses how theorists like Thorndike, Guthrie, Skinner, Hull, Tolman, and Gagné viewed the role of the teacher based on their behavioral and cognitive learning theories derived from animal and child studies. They generally saw teaching as managing external conditions to ensure specified behavioral changes in learners. The document then contrasts this with theories of teaching from adult learning theorists like Rogers, who rejected the notion that teaching is controlling learning and saw the teacher's role differently.
This document describes the development and validation of a new parent report measure called the Salience, Organization and Management of Time Scale (SOMTS) to assess temporal self-regulation in children with and without Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in everyday contexts. The measure was developed in three phases: item generation from existing scales and parent interviews, preliminary validation, and analysis of the factor structure. Testing of the scale on 194 parents of children with ADHD and 142 parents of children without ADHD found a three factor structure related to verbalizing temporal structures, temporal self-regulation, and conceptualizing and sequencing time. Children with ADHD scored significantly lower on all three factors, demonstrating the scale's ability to discriminate between children
This document summarizes a study on misconceptions in chemistry among freshmen students at Mindanao University of Science and Technology (MUST). The study aims to determine which chemistry topics students have misconceptions about, the reasons for these misconceptions, and how misconceptions compare between male and female students. It outlines the problem statement, research questions, hypothesis, significance of the study, assumptions, limitations, and definition of key terms. The theoretical framework discusses prior research on students' understanding of concepts like solutions, molecular models, and multiple representations.
Fast Paper Writing Service, 11 Research Paper Writing IdeasSteven Wallach
This document provides instructions for using a paper writing service called HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions until satisfied, with a refund option for plagiarism. The service aims to provide original, high-quality content to meet customer needs.
1. The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a 'Write My Paper For Me' request on the HelpWriting.net site. It outlines a 5-step process: creating an account, submitting a request form, reviewing writer bids, authorizing payment, and requesting revisions if needed.
2. Writers on the site utilize a bidding system, and customers can choose a writer based on qualifications, order history, and feedback. The site promises original, high-quality content and refunds for plagiarized work.
3. Customers can request multiple revisions to ensure satisfaction with their completed paper.
How To Write A Self Evaluation Essay TelegraphSteven Wallach
The document discusses how to write a self-evaluation essay, outlining 5 steps: 1) create an account, 2) complete an order form providing instructions and deadline, 3) review bids from writers and choose one, 4) review the completed paper and authorize payment, and 5) request revisions to ensure satisfaction and receive a refund for plagiarized work. The process describes how to hire a writer on the HelpWriting.net platform to complete an assignment.
George Washington Papers, Available Online, GeorgeSteven Wallach
The document describes how a student named Nick Allen decides to call pens "frindles" as a joke. His teacher Mrs. Granger does not approve and punishes students for using the made-up word. However, the word catches on and eventually makes it into the dictionary. Years later, Mrs. Granger congratulates Nick and apologizes for opposing the new word, showing how language evolves through common use.
How To Write An Evaluation Essay Types, Steps And Format Of AnSteven Wallach
The document discusses the ancient Greek sculpture The Lansdowne Athlete by Lysippos from 340 BCE. It analyzes how the sculpture portrays the ideal of perfection through a fit body guided by a keen mind, representing the philosophical debates around appropriate forms of perfection. The paper aims to approach the visual essence of the sculpture and analyze how it depicts this ideal of physical and mental perfection.
Law Essay Writing Service Help - Theomnivore.Web.Fc2Steven Wallach
The document provides instructions for requesting assistance with writing law essays from a service called HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one. 4) Receive the paper and authorize payment if pleased. 5) Request revisions until satisfied. The service promises original, high-quality work with refunds for plagiarism.
Best Photos Of APA Format Example R. Online assignment writing service.Steven Wallach
1. The document discusses the history of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark's westward expedition in 1803-1806 led by Thomas Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Purchase territory and find a route across North America.
2. Lewis and Clark spent months preparing, obtaining scientific equipment, medicines, gifts for Native Americans, and more before departing. Lewis had scientific knowledge and Clark was experienced in mapping and military skills.
3. The expedition made discoveries about the land, geography, native tribes, and wildlife. Lewis and Clark worked as a great team and successfully completed the mission of exploring the new western lands.
How To Write A 6 Page Research Paper -Write MySteven Wallach
The document provides instructions for writing a 6-page research paper through an online service. It outlines 5 steps: 1) Create an account; 2) Complete an order form with instructions and deadline; 3) Review writer bids and choose one; 4) Review the paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions until satisfied. It emphasizes getting original, high-quality content and providing a sample for the writer to imitate the writing style.
My Family Essay My Family Essay In English Essay OSteven Wallach
This paper investigates the linear and nonlinear optical susceptibilities and hyperpolarizability of lithium sodium tetraborate (LiNaB4O7) single crystals through both theoretical calculations and experimental measurements in order to evaluate their potential for nonlinear optical applications such as frequency conversion of lasers. Borate materials are well-suited for nonlinear optics and laser engineering due to properties like short growth periods, high damage thresholds, large effective nonlinear coefficients, and good mechanical properties. The results show that LiNaB4O7 crystals exhibit good nonlinear optical performance, making them promising for frequency conversion applications.
FREE 8+ Sample College Essay Templates In MSteven Wallach
1) The document discusses two key human resource management strategies used by Coles Supermarkets: reward management and performance management.
2) It analyzes how reward management is implemented at Coles and identifies areas for improvement to bridge the gap between operational losses and optimal performance.
3) The performance management method used by Coles to efficiently and effectively guide employees' work is also examined. Performance management helps ensure employee activities align with organizational goals.
Argumentative Essay Help – Qu. Online assignment writing service.Steven Wallach
The document discusses a proposed plan for Congress to require all U.S. high school graduates to spend one year in mandatory civil service before attending college. While Congress supports this plan, many others disagree with forcing students to take a year away from potential religious trips or delaying their field of study. The author's high school also opposes the idea, believing it could be counterproductive to have graduates leave their intended career paths.
How To Write A Literary Analysis Essay - Take UsSteven Wallach
1) The document provides instructions for how to request and receive help with writing assignments from the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: register an account, submit a request form with instructions and deadline, review writer bids and select one, authorize payment after receiving satisfactory work, and request revisions if needed.
2) The website uses a bidding system where writers submit proposals, and clients can ensure original, high-quality work or receive a refund if plagiarized.
3) The process aims to fully meet client needs for assignment writing help.
How To Get Paid To Write Essa. Online assignment writing service.Steven Wallach
Proprietary software has the advantage of being fully controlled by its developers who can closely guard its intellectual property, but it also has the disadvantage of limiting users' freedom since they cannot modify or share the source code. While proprietary software may offer strong technical support from its developers, it can also lock users into certain platforms and force them to pay licensing fees to continue using the software.
Movie Review Example Review Essay Essay TroSteven Wallach
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net in 5 steps:
1. Create an account with a password and email.
2. Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline. Attach a sample if imitating writing style.
3. Review bids from writers and choose one based on qualifications, history, and feedback. Place a deposit to start.
4. Ensure the paper meets expectations and authorize payment if pleased. Free revisions are provided.
5. Request revisions until satisfied, knowing plagiarized work results in a full refund.
Quoting A Poem How To Cite A Poem All You Need To Know About Citing ...Steven Wallach
The document discusses the multiple causes that led to the Protestant Reformation, including social forces emerging from economic motives, the powerful papacy raking in financial acquisitions while most people were paupers, and Charles V facing a dilemma that allowed Luther to implement his plan and sow seeds of dissent. It argues against identifying a single cause and emphasizes the need to study history with humility and understand the various interconnected events and complex social forces that contributed to the Reformation.
Validity And Reliability Of Research Instrument ExamSteven Wallach
This experiment aims to determine how the rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulphate is affected by changing the concentration of the hydrochloric acid. The hypothesis is that increasing the concentration of hydrochloric acid will increase the rate of reaction and decrease the reaction time. This is tested by reacting four different concentrations of hydrochloric acid with a constant amount of sodium thiosulphate, and measuring the time taken for the reaction, marked by disappearance of an X, to complete.
This toy stimulates muscle tone development in children by requiring them to sit upright either in front of or on top of the toy to play with its buttons, keys and other features, engaging their back, core and leg muscles to maintain proper posture. Sitting upright allows children to see and reach the toy at the proper level while developing muscle tension and control. Playing with the toy's dashboard and handlebars keeps children's hands and legs engaged to enhance muscle tone.
This document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with a refund offered for plagiarized work.
Science Essay - College Homework Help And OnlinSteven Wallach
Best Buy failed in its expansion into China due to several strategic mistakes including attempting to directly copy its US store model without adapting to the Chinese market, facing strong competition from established domestic retailers, and struggling to build brand awareness and loyalty among Chinese consumers unfamiliar with the Best Buy brand. As a result, Best Buy was forced to exit the Chinese market after several years of unsuccessful operations and financial losses. Best Buy's experience highlights the importance of thorough market research and localization when expanding into foreign markets with very different consumer behaviors and competitive landscapes.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
Pengantar Penggunaan Flutter - Dart programming language1.pptx
Accelerating The Development Of Formal Thinking In Middle And High School Students
1. DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 294 914 TM 811 631
AUTHOR Adey, Phillip; Shayer, Michael
TITLE Accelerating the Development of Formal Thinking in
Middle and 'Ugh School Students.
PUB DATE 23 Mar 88
NOTE 22p.; Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
American Educational Research Association thew
Orleans, LA, April 5-9, 1988).
PUB TYPE Speeches/Conference Papers (158) -- Reports -
Research /Technical (143)
EDRS PRICE MF81/PC81 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS *Adolescents; Age Differences; Cognitive Processes;
*Developmental Stages; Elementary Secondary
Education; Foreign Countries; *Formal Operations;
*High School Students; *Junior High School Students;
Middle Schools; *Piagetian Theory; Schemata
(Cognition); Science Instruction
IDENTIFIERS United Kingdom
ABSTRACT
In an attempt to accelerate the development of formal
operations in average young adolescents, up to 30 intervention
lessons relating to all formal schemata were given by science
teachers, over a period of 2 years, to classes in eight British
schools. Boys starting the program aged 12 years-plus showed a
pre-test, post-test effect size on Piagetian tests of 8.89 standard
deviation compared with control classes; this represents a mean
change from the 49th to the 26th percentile in terns of British norms
for the development of operational thinking. Middle school students
and girls of 12 years-plus did not show greater gains than controls.
Gains were shown by girls in one 11 years-plus class and two
laboratory classes for the same age group. In one school, gains were
maintained fo- one year after the program ended. There were no
effects on tests of science achievement during the intervention. It
is concluded that in-service training designed to enable teachers to
adapt to the students' increased operational thinking capacity should
accompany the interventions. Six tables and four figures are
included. (SLD)
***********************************************************************
* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
* from the original document. *
***********************************************************************
2. ?%,41.04At a -to RE T1. A N rtcl 1.1t 4 t 91 VA,
V.8 DEPARTMENT Of EOUCATiON
dace of &Mahon* Rosman+ and improvement
EDucARONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERICI
i Ttrd document has been mdtoduced as
warmed Ifont the datums of of gsndatron
o0prnanna
C Woe changes hove been made to mike,.
faotoductron <moray
dorm Of mew of Opnrons stated .n tmsdocu
meat do not necSanly farewell ottoCral
OEM oosmon Of Poky
ACCELERATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL THINKING
IN MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS.
PI .11 if,
r i ,,kj :
r-i rst-Th GI f ITL31 is 41- 1 t r i '71:10
CY% P.n,Ad
q..1 Ia inn cu.! NIA
CY% En91,And
(NJ
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
LA.) INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
r ,
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
ailL.1 P S. 40ei
Abstract
In an attempt to accelerate the development of formal operations
in average young adolescents, intervention lessons relating to
all formal schemata were designed in the context of school
science courses. Over a period of 2 years, up to 30
intervention lessons were given by science teachers to their
classes in 8 schools. Boys who started the program aged 12+
showed a preposttest effect size on Piagetian tests of 0.89 SD
compared with control classes. In terms of British norms for
the development of operational thinking this was a mean change
from the 49th to the 26th percentile. Neither the middle school
students nor the 12+ girls showed greater gain than the
controls. Gains were shown by girls one 11+ class and in the
two 11+ laboratory classes. In the laboratory school students
given intervention lessons by the researchers maintained their
gains over controls in formal operations at a delayed posttest
one year after cessation of the program. There was no effect on
tests of science achievement during the intervention. It was
argued that the interventions needed to be accomoanied by
inservice training designed to enable teachers to change their
teaching style in line with their students' increas&d
operational thinking capacity.
2
BEST COPY Alf LABLE
3. accelerating formal thinking
ACCELERATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF FORMAL THINKING
IN MIDDLE AND HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
This paper will describe the results of a research project,
Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE` designed
to test whether science education in secondary schools could be
a context in which the cognitive development of adolescents can
be changed. The profile of cognitive development of British
students has been determined by a large-scale representative
survey using Piagetian measures (Shayer, Kuchemann & Wylam 1976;
Shayer & Wy lam 1978) as part of the Concepts in Secondary
.lathematics and Science (CSMS) program. Among 12 year-olds the
results showed a developmental range of +1- six years, centered
around late concrete operational thinking. Among 16 year-olds,
only 30% achieved even early formal operations, and only 11%
showed the mature formal operations needed, for example, for
successful university work in science or mathematics.
It seemed to be of the utmost importance to determine
whether schools might alter this dismal picture. The
alternative would be that teachers would have to adapt their
teaching to the current reality of the developmental profile and
the variation in development of their students. If it did prove
to be possible to change the current profile, then it would be
important also to estimate by how iauch the professional skills
of science teachers needed to be enhanced. A more distant
objective was to look at how students' learning in other school
subjects might be affected.
Review of Previous Work
There is nothing new about attempts to accelerate cognitive
development. Siegler, Liebert, and Liebert (1973) showed that
10 year olds could be trained to solve the pendulum problem,
involving control of variables. each training procedure,
however, itself involved the pendulum problem, so this can be
seen as direct training with no attempt to test for any
generalistion of effect to other contexts 17- other schemata.
Case (1974) also showed that it was possible to train 8 year
olds in the control of variables strategy, and further that for
field independent subjects there was some transfer to
combinatorial thinking - but there is some doubt as to whether
combinatorial reasoning is really the formal schema that Piaget
believed it to be. Bredderman (1973) used two types of training
('reinforcement' and 'cognitive conflict') in an attempt to
train the control of variables schema, but neither trained group
showed any significantly greater gain than a control group.
Lawson, Blake, and Nord land (1975) were able to train 14-17 year
olds (in pairs) to improve their performance in a control of
variables task, but with no specific transfer to other tasks in
the same schema. On the other hand, Lawson and Wollman (1976)
trained 10 and 12 year olds in the bending rods task, and found
specific transfer to other control of variables tasks but no
general transfer to compensation tasks or other more general
measures of formal operational thinking. Similarly, Lawson and
31
4. accelerating formal thinking
Snitgen (1982) demonstrated significant gains in formal
reasoning ability of college freshmen as a result of a special
one semester biology programme, but again no transfer was
observed to schemata not included in the program.
The reports cited so far employing a strategy of training
directly in the use of one or more schemata have failed to
produce evidence of general transfer. There are, however, a few
intervention studies which do suggest that general cognitive
acceleration may be an attainable goal. Kuhn and Angelev (1976)
trained some 8 - 11 years olds by setting series of problems on
identifying which boxes had 'prizes' inside by the shape,
colour, and size of symbols on the boxes. On each presentation
the rules were changed, and the child was asked to think aloud
to explain his/her strategy in isolating the features that led
to the prize. Structurally this is a control of variables
problem, but superficially it is quite different from, say, the
pendulum problem. Compared to a control groups subjects
performed better both in a pendulum posttest, and in the
chemical combinations task. Rosenthal (1979) gave two one-hour
sessions to groups of 15 girls aged about 11 years. The
training focussed the subjects' attention on the dimensions of
variables in various situations, without specifically steering
them towards a control of variables strategy. In posttests,
subjects trained thus performed significantly better than
controls both in flexible rods (control of variables) and in
proportionality tasks. Here is some evidence for general
transfer.
An important feature of these last two studies is that the
strategies of formal schemata are not directly trained at all,
but rather the subjects are directed to notions of measurement,
of dimensions, or given successive problems without solutions
which force them to focus on new aspects of the problem. It
seems likely that the success of such strategies is that
subjects are given the essential mental tools which enable them
to construct the formal schemata for themselves. We hypothesise
that it is the process of constructing their own meaningt, which
leads students to the cognitive restructuring responsible for
increased scores of experimental groups.
A final point about the attempts at cognitive acceleration
reported in the literature is that they have generally been
limited in extent. Often they consist of one or Just a few
special 'interventions', never extended beyond two months at ene
intervention per week. If we are considering the possibility pf
a significant restructuring of a person's thinking capability,
it is reasonable to suppose that this could require
interventions ever a longer time scale.
Description of the CASE Project
Aims and Constraints.
The program was carried out in British secondary schools
4
5. accelerating formal thinking
between October 1984 and July 1987. Features which distinguish
this program from the interventions described in the literature
are that it was to be delivered by regular high school teachers
in ordinary school settings, over a period of two academic
years, and was to be integrated into the schools' regular
science curriculum. It was proposed to produce intervention
Lessons related to ten formal operational schemata in the
contexts of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, to take up no more
than 257. of the time normally allotted to science. An important
spin-off of the work would be the development of the teachers'
professional expertise in recognising some sources of learning
difficulties amongst their pupils and introducing to them
strategies which may overcome such difficulties.
Subjects
The main experiment was conducted in eight schools. In
addition, one school was designated a "Laboratory school", for
the trial of new intervention material. This Laboratory School
was an ordinary London comprehensive secondary school in in
which the project staff themselves taught the intervention
Lessons to two 1st year (114- years) classes over a period of VD
months. The purposes were:
(a) the formative evaluation of the intervention lessons drafted
by the project. The laboratory school provided an opportunity
to try out new material and to make some revisions before asking
others to teach it;
(b) to investigate what effect could be achieved by teachers who
fully comprehended the model underlying the interventions.
The main experiment schools. Thse were chosen on the
advice of science advisers from seven different areas (Avon,
Bedfordshire, Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Inner London, Surrey,
and Wigan). The schools included inner city, suburban, and
rural schools. All of the schools were mixed-sex. Two were
middle schools (9 - 14 years). The remainder were secondary
schools (11 or 12 - 13 years). Experimental classes frc'm the
middle schools started at the 114 age Level. Most experimental
classes in the secondary schools started at the 12+ age level
(second year), although one first year (113 experimental class
was used.
Controls. In each school control classes were chosen that
were parallel in age and ability to the experimental classes,
and who normally received the same science curriculum. Two
types of control claw.; were identified. Control 1 classes were
taught science by the same teachers who wwre co use the
intervention material with the experimental classes. Control 2
classes were taught by different teachers. In practice, the
distinction between the two types of control became blurred by
the second year, with changes of schedules and teachers'
responsibilities.
6. accelerating formal thinking
The Interventions
The interventions were special lessons used with
experimental classes instead of regular science lessons at the
rate of about one 60 to 80 minute lesson every two weeks over a
period of two years. No school used more than 70 intervention
lessons in all.
Intervention lessons were designed around these schemata of
formal operations: Control and exclusion of variables, ratio
and proportionality, equilibrium, compensation, combinatorial
thinking, correlation, probability, compound variables, and
conservation involving formal modelling. The strategy of the
intervention lessons was based on the experiences of workers
cited above and on a pre-trial feasibility study conducted by
one of the authors. Each intervention lesson focusses on one of
the schemata, although as the program progresses one lesson may
also call up schemata introduced previously. The terminology
required is initially introduced in contexts which require
concrete modelling only. Once familiar with terms such as
"variables", "values of variables", and "relationships between
variables", students are given practical problems which require
the use of the formal schema for their solution. There is no
attempt to teach, for instance, "rules for controlling
variables". Rather, the student is put in the position where
she has to construct the schema for herself in order to solve a
practical problem.
For example, a set of tubes of different length, thickness,
and material are provided, and the students have to decide which
variables affect the note produced when they blow across the
tube. Feedback from the problem, organised by the teacher,
shows the student the extent to which she is being successful in
reaching a solution. In this example, a student who says "the
note depends on length" is asked to show how he knows. He may
demonstrate with two tubes of different length and different
thickness. The teacher's questioning probes what this says
about thickness. Even if the student does not see that
variables have been confounded, he does see that there is some
problem with his conclusion. This is the cognitive conflict
with which he may be left, but which it is supposed "loosens" an
existing cognitive structure, making it more amenable to
restructuring at a higher level on another occasion.
Another aspect of the intervention strategy is that each
schema is related to examples from the regular science
curriculum. In the science curriculum, reference is made to
experiences from the intervention lessons. This 'bridging' back
and forth is hypothesised to be necessary for the consolidation
of the development of formal schemata.
Materials and Inservice
Project teachers received the intervention lessons in the
form of teachers' notes, students' worksheets and problems. At
4
6
7. accelerating formal thinking
the start of the project they spent one day at the project
centre for an introduction to the nature of the schemata of
formal operations, and a review of the main features of a
Piagetian developmental perspective on learning. There was also
a run-through of the specific activities included in the
intervention lessons to be taught in the first term. In each
subsequent term during the project a similar one day meeting was
held, including a mixture of practical experience with new
intervention activities and some theoretical perspective such as
bridging, formal modelling, or the possibilites of such a thing
as general development. As the project progressed teachers
played an increasingly participatory role, providing feedback on
the lessons taught and their own suggestions for new activities
and for bridging from the interventions to the regular science
curriculum. In addition to these meetings, each school was
visited by project staff at least once per term. Intervention
lessons were observed and discussed with the teacher afterwards.
Tests and the testing program
The main test instruments used were Piagetian Reasoning
Tasks, (NFER 1979). These are demonstrated group tests of
cognitive development whose development and validation have been
reported (Shayer, Adey & Wy lam 1981). Recently completed
re-analysis of the Tasks using Rasch scaling has enabled the
task item level and the person level to be estimated on the same
scale. This permits a greater degree of precision on the
ascription of a level to a person. From the total number of
items correct a score on the following scale is obtained. The
scale score may be interpreted in terms of levels of development
if required.
1 (.7 oricr e rw, TA
IT. I i COM' r 7A 4-:
ronct.0 Tn:
oiott: geroi-: kt 1 .4,0._ L3Jr31
(-fir f no. ool, 7A: 7
:ha t uro far M31 , MI 1*
furnol rjenctraJle-ALIoN, 7n:
Testing occasions for experimental and control groups were
planned as follows:
Pretests, before any intervention lessons were given:
'Pendulum' and 'Equilibrium in the Balance' in the lab school,
'Volume and Heaviness' and Pendulum' in the main experiment.
Midtests, after approximately one year of intervention:
'Pendulum' and 'Equilibrium in the Balance' in the lab school,
'Flexible Rods' in the main experiment.
Posttests, after approximately two years of intervention:
`Flexible Rods' in the lab school,
'Probability' and `Pendulum' in the main experiment.
7
8. accelerating formal thinking
Delayed posttests, one year after the postfsts and one year
after intervention lessons had ceased (lab school only):
'Pendulum'.
All Piagetian Reasoning Tasks (PRT) were administered either by
the project staff or by the project teachers after seeing one
demonstrated by project staff. All were scored in the project
office, with cross checking of a sample between two markers.
In addition to the PRT testing program, posttest batteries
in Main Experiment schools included a common science achievement
test designed in cooperation with the project t "achers, and
agreed by them as representing a fair test of some of their
science curriculum objectives.
Results and Discussion
Laboratory school
Mean scores for experimental and control groups on pre-,
mid-, post-, and delayed post- Piagetian tests in the Laboratory
School are shown in table I for all pupils and for boys and
girls separately. Figure 1 displays the results for boys and
girls combined.
(Table I about here)
(Figure I about here)
It is clear that by the end of the intervention period the
experimental group had achieved a significantly greater gain in
levels of cognitive development than had the control group. In
the subsequent year during which there was no further interven-
tion, the experimental group continued to develop at the same
rate as the control group and gains made during the intervention
period were maintained. It appears that having being moved on
to a faster developmental track, the experimental group
continued on this track without further special treatment.
Differences between boys and girls will be discussed later.
Main Experiment
Equivalence of control groups. The gains made by the two
control groups differed by only 0.7 standard errors, and the
control-1 group gains were not significantly correlated with the
gains of the experimental groups taught by the same teacher.
The two groups are thus merged in the discussion that follows.
Overall results. Firstly, a global comparison of the
experimental and control groups is presented in the top part of
table 2 and figure 2.
(Table 2 about here)
(Figure 2 about here)
Overall the experimental group made gains in levels of cognitive
development which were statistically greater than those made by
the control group over the two year period of the intervention.
9. accelerating formal thinking
Yet the relative gain is only 0.21 levels, ar 0.20 standard
deviation. As a size of effect this is equivalent to perhaps
two or three months differential in development, and were this
all that the project had to show, it would be difficult to
justify the effort. However, the composite data conceals some
interesting differences in gains made by different age groups,
by boys and girls, and within individual schools. Data on each
of these dimensions will be presented in the following sections.
Age group. The gains made by experimental and control
gro.aps starting the two year intervention program at 11+ and at
12f years are shown in the lower part of table 2. All the extra
gain by the experimental. group as compared with the control
group appears to be concentrated in the 12+ age group. Does
this suggest an optimum time at which interventions designed to
accelerate cognitive development will be effective? We shall
see later that such an interpretation may be over-simple.
Gender. If the results are now broken down within each age
group for boys and girls, a further concentration of the effect
emerges (table 3).
(Table 3 about here)
Only the boys within the 12+ group appear to have been
affected by tha intervention program, with an effect size of
0.89 of a level, ar 0.91 SD. With none of the other sub-groups
does any difference in gain approach significance.
Starting Level. Perhaps a more pertinent factor than
chronological age is the level of development of the pupils at
which the intervention starts - yet no such differences appeared
in the data. This is exemplified by two sub groups, one which
did and one which did not did not show a significant difference
of experimental over control: 12+ boys and 11+ boys
respectively. The data is presented in table 4.
(Table 4 about here)
Overall, the 11+ boys in the experimental group showed no
greater gain than those in the control group. The data in table
4 show that this is also, true for each subgroup broken down by
starting level. A similar effect is found with the two girls'
subgroups. Overall, the 12+ boys in the experimental group
showed a significantly greater gain than those in the control
group. Table 4 shows that for each starting level, the
experimental group gain is obviously larger than the control
group gain, reaching statistical significance at the 5% level in
the first three of four subgroups. Thus the difference between
the effect of the interventions on 11+ and 12+ starting age
groups cannot be attributed to lower levels of cognitive
development amongst the younger pupils.
Teacher/ Class. Could the rather dramatic effect noticed
with the 12+ boys be accounted for, perhaps, by the exceptional
performance of one or two classes / teachers? To answer this,
and to reveal more about possible interpretations of the data,
we must turn to individual class results.
9
10. accelerating formal thinking
In table 5 the gain scores for boys and girls are given for
each class at mid- and posttests, and contrasted with (a) the
mean gains of the relevant controls, and (b) the expected mean
gains based on the CSMS survey results for pupils at comparable
age ranges ( Shayer et al. 1976; Shayer Wylam 1978; Shayer
Williams, 1984). Mean gains under (b) are added as a check on
the representiveness of the control groups (a). They are not
(statistically) significantly different. The differential
growth rates in the different years of the CASE control groups
are consistent with the CSMS survey data.
(Table 5 about here)
In table 6, the gain scores shown in table 5 have been converted
to percentile changes in comparison to the CSMS survey data.
(Table 6 about here)
Internalising the ModeL
In figure 3 the pre-, mid-, and posttest means for the boys
in each of the 12+ classes are plotted in comparison with the
mean of al! the controls. It can be seen that in the first year
three of the seven classee far outperform the controls, but four
do not. Yet in the second year all experimental classes show
greater slopes than the controls. A possible interpretation is
that three of the teachers internalised the intervention model
during the first year, but only during the second year did all
do so. A comparable figure for the girls shows no differences
from the controls in either year.
(Figures 3 snd 4 about here)
Figure 4 displays pre- to posttest mean gains for the 12+
boys and girl:. The values shown are the mean gains for each
class less the control mean gains (for boys and girls
separately), so that differences between experimental classes
and controls are shown against a comparable reference point.
The gender of the teacher is added at the foot of the diagram.
It can be seen that although there is substantial variation in
the class means (the standard error of each mean is around 0.35
levels), it is reasonable to treat them as small-sample
variations around a mean of 0.89 levels (0.91 SD) for boys and
around 0 for girls. No evidence from the diagram supports the
notion that the gender of the teacher is responsible for the
non-effect with the girls.
We have no explanation to offer for this difference between
boys and girls. Two weaker lines of evidence caution against a
belief either that girls' development cannot be accelerated, or
that ages 11 to 12 are unfavourable to intervention both for
boys and girls. The pre- and delayed posttest differences
between experimental and controls for the laboratory school were
0.77 levels for girls and 0.46 levels for boys, and this was A
first-year 11+ group. And one of the four 11+ expertmentals was
a secondary school class in which, although there was no
difference from the control mean for the boys, the girls showed
an effect -sire of 0.76 levels, which was significant just at the
11. accelerating formal thinking
0.05 level in comparison with the controls. We believe that the
most likely explanation of the general non-effect for the 11+
classes was that the three that showed no effect were all Middle
school classes. It is possible that the teachers concerned had
more difficulty with the intervention model than those with
experience of teaching science requiring tormal operational
thinking to the older pupils in secondary schools.
Transfer'?
There is some evidence for general transfer from one school
which was asked specifically not to use any of the 4
intervention lessons concerned with the proability schema. The
school used the time available to teach either alternative
interventions based on other schemata, or their regular science
curriculum. The pre- to posttest gains to the Pendulum PRT were
1.07 levels (N = 39, SD = 1.28) and to the Probability PRT were
1.01 levels (N = 35, SD = 1.31). Both of these gains were
significantly greater than the control groups gains at p < .01.
With this sample size the power of the test comparison is low,
but it does suggest that the gains made are not the result of
direct teaching of the subject of the tests but reflect deeper
changes in cognitive structures, since the same effect size
shows for the probability schema which was not included in the
intervention program of this school as for the control of
variables schema which was.
Science Achievement Tests.
Few schools found time to give the common science
achievement test as well as the main PRT test battery, but data
is available from classes 0301, 0302, 0902, and the
corresponding control classes. It can be seen from figure 4
that these are classes where, if any exists, one would expect to
find enhanced science achievement in the boys. Yet for matched
pairs from the experimental and control group boys with the same
mean on Piagetian pre-test, the control mean on science
Achievement was 44.57.. (N = 19, SD = 21.0) as compared with the
experimental mean of 42.47. (SD = 16.8), giving t = -0.4. The
effect of the intervention is not yet showing in the students'
science achievement: it is neither improved nor, although the
experimental groups lost up to 25% of their science curriculum
time to the intervention program, has it been adversely
affected.
Conclusion: The Educational Meaning of the Research
The size of the experimental effect for the boys in toe
intervention classes starting at 12+ - about 0.9 Piagetian level
- suggests to us very strongly that the CSMS British population
survey data do not represent an unalterable feature of human
development. A gain of 23 percentile. ptants (table 6) achieved
in 20 months should almost double the numbers of boys developing
the formal operational thinking needeil
1
for success in
1
12. accelerating formal thint,ing
traditional school courses in science and mathematics. Control
class results indicate that current teaching routines do not
change the rate of development any more than was apparent from
the CSMS survey data obtained 10 years ago. Thus a major
decision point reached by the project has been resolved in
support of using schooling to alter cognitive development, and
against the notion of merely adapting to existing norms.
However, while we now believe that schooling can alter
development, it is clear that this project is at best a first
step to enabling schooling to change to do it. Some important
issues remaining to be resolved are discussed in the concluding
sections.
Training',
A believer in a skill-training model of development might
assert that we nave but tested the skills we have trained. Our
first reply would be that the indirect training methods adopted
would have been a very foolish strategy to adopt if a
training model were true.
The second reply is related to the more general issue of
whether the developmental spectrum can be altered. It is that
effect sizes of comparable magnitude with students initially 12+
years old have been reported in another study where the
intervention model did not involve training of Piagetian
operations. Shayer and Beasley (1987) reported using
Feuerstein's Isistrumental Enrichment (IE) course for two years
with students in the bottom 57. of the performance range in a
special school. As measures of fluid intelligence, Raven's
Matrices gave an effect size of 1.1 SD and a Piagetian interview
battery gave 1.2 SD compared with controls.
Paradoxically, only if one views the Piagetian account of
cognitive development to be false is the testing strategy we
used the wrong one. If it is believed to be true, then the
Piagetian tests are essential to answer the research question:
Were the effects of the intervention due to the model used?
Having said which, we must face squarely the f)ct that in this
study, no effects were found on measures or sch'.ol achievement.
Transfer to Science Achievement
There are two distinct issues about the relation between an
intervention program and schoul achievement.
When should the effect show? If one regards an
intervention as a process exhibiting an sigmoid learning curve,
it will only be about two-thirds of the way through that there
will be enougui difference between the thinking of experimentals
and controls to make any substantial difference. The right way
to test the effe. -t of an intervention on achievement is to wait
until it is over, give the controls and experimentals the same
fresh learning experience, and then test them on the content,
concepts, and processes of the new learning. In this way the
test will be of the mature effect of the intervention on
12
13. accelerating formal thinking
subsequent learning ability. On such a view this and all
previous intervention studies must be regarded as exhibiting
non-statistical type 2 error. It is as though one had found a
way of increasing adolescents' strength and reaction speed, and
then expected an instantaneous improvement in their tennis
performance. Certainly some improvement should be noticed
straight away but any good coach will now that only a replanned
training program will deliver an increased performance that the
underlying increase in competence makes potential. We belie,e
that this applies quite generally to all attempts to improve
thinking skills.
A Pygmalion effect^ The second issue is more subtle. If
one accepts the reasonableness of Rosenthal's U9871 review of
the Pygmalion effec literature, then it seems that teachers and
students enter into a process of mutual adapatation related to
the learning process. The nature of the learning experiences
offered by the teacher will depend on her or his view of the
classes' capabilities, and the students likewise become
accustomed to responding to the teachers' expectations.
Following an intervention which affects students' fluid
intelligence, it may be quite a long time before teacher and
students re-adapt to the new quality of learning that is
available. If we develop fluid intelligence without at the same
time helping students to develop their learning habits, an
important element of "natural" development may be missed.
Perhaps one of the reasons that cognitive development is so slow
in childhood is that here-and-now thinking is not the whole
story. The unseen element is the process of re-adapting their
whole spectrum of reality-processing habits to a level which a
change in fluid intelligence has made potential.
Inservice for Teachers
From the start of the project it was believed that unless
teachers' professional skills are developed appropriately,
pupils' development will not be changed. But we were not
certain about the quality and quantity of inservice training
that would be required for teachers to make the methods their
own. In effect we wrote the scripts of the lessons which the
teachers gave to their pupils, but cannot yet say that we have
shown teachers how to write those scripts for themselves,
although some start has been made on that task.
A major project is required to investigate the nature of
the inservice training which will enable teachers to generalise
the methodology of the intervention lessons, and to review their
everyday teaching strategies so that each new topic is
approached so as to enable students to apply their developed
operational thinking in a mere advanced learning style. In this
way, perhaps, teachers could learn to exercise their
professional skills reliably so that what has been achieved for
the boys in these project schools can become a feature of all
secondary schooling t_th for girls and boys. Given this as a
major objective, it would be sensible also to assess fresh
learning experiences after the intervention, as argued above,
firstly in science but also in school subjects completely
14. accelerating formal thinidng
outside the context of the intervention.
References
Bredderman, T. A. (1973). The effects of training on the
ability to control variables. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 10, 189-200
Case, R. (1974). Structures and strictures: some functional
limits to cognitive growth. Cognitive Psychology, 6,
544-574.
Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The Growth of Logical
Thinking. London: Rout ledge Kegan Paul.
Kuhn, D. & Angelev, J. (1976). An experimental study of the
development of formal operational thought. Child Development
47, 607-706.
Lawson, A.E., Blake, A.J.D., & Nord land, F. (1976). The factor
structure of some Piagetian tasks. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 13(5), 461-466.
Lawson, A.E., & Snitgen, D.A. (1982). Teaching formal reasoning
in a college biology course for preservice teachers. Journal
of Research in Science Teaching, 19, 233-248.
Lawson A.E. & Wollman W.T. (1976). Encouraging the transition
from concrete to formal cognitive functioning - an
experiment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 13(5),
413-430.
NFER (1979) Science Reasoning Tasks. Windsor: National
Foundation for Educational Research. (now available as
Piagetian Reasoning_ Tasks from Science Reasoning, room 5.217,
Kings Co liege, University of London, 552 Kings Road, London
SW10 QUA)
Rosenthal, D.A. (1979) The acquisition of formal operations -
the effect of two training procedures. Journal of Genetic
Psychology, 134, 125-140.
Rosenthal, R. (1987). Pygmalion effects: existence, magnitude,
and social importance. Educational Researcher, 16(9), 37-41.
Shayer M., Adey P., & Wylam H. (1981). Group tests of cognitive
development - and a realization. Journal of Research
in Science Teaching, 18(2), 157-168.
Shayer, M. & Beasley, F. (1987). Does Instrumental Enrichment
work'. British Educational Research Journal, 13(2)1 101-119
Shayer, M., Kuchemann D., & Wylam H. (1976). The distribution
of Piagetian stages of thinking in British middle and
secondary school children. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 46, 164-173
Shayer M. & Williams J. (1984). Sex differences on Piagetian
formal operations tasks: where they went and how to find
them. In C.J. Turner & H.B. Miles (Eds.) The Biology of
Human Intelligence. Driffield: Nafferton Books.
Shayer M. & Wylam H. (1978). The distribution of Piagetian
stages of thinking in British middle and secondary school
children II: 14-16 year olds and sex differentials. British
Journal of Educational Psychology. 48, 62-70
Siegler, R., Liebert, D. & Leibert, R. (1973). Inhelder and
Piaget's pendulum problem: teaching preadolescents to act as
scientists. Developmental Psychology, 9(1), 97-101.
14
15. Table 1
Laboratom_school scores on Piagetian Reasoning Tasks
Period of test Gain score
Group N Pre- Mid-
All
Experimental 29
Post- Delayed
post-
Pre-post Pre-delayed
5.89 6.46 6.35 7.01 0.4611 1.13*
SD 0.55 0.72 1.00 1.21 1.05 1,12
Control 19
6.46 6.72 6.26 7.01 -0.20 0.54
0.36 0.56 0.87 1.09 0.70 0.86
Boys
Experimental 15
K 5.84 6,52 6.35 7,03 0.51 1.19
SD 0.59 0.88 1.14 1.48 1,17 1.36
Control 11
6.54 6.87 6.64 7.27 0.10 0..73
SD 0.41 0.53 0.89 1.05 0.69 0.71
Girls
Experimental 14
5.94 6,41 6,35 7.00 0,42** 1.061
SD 0.52 0.59 0.87 0.86 0.92 0.83
Control 8
6.35 6.53 5.75 6.64 -0.61 0.29
SD 0.26 0,56 0.55 1.09 0.49 1.02
No es # = significant ly greater than control at p < .05;
*1 = significant ly greater than control at p < .01
Time of tests: Pre-test t /84; Mid-test 7/85; Post-test 7/86; relayed 7/87.
Mean age of pupa Is at pre-test: 12/8.
15
16. Main experiment schoal_scoreso Piazetian Reasoniu Tasks
Group
All
Period of test
N Pre- Mid- Post- Gain
Experimental 190
6.10 6,38 6,97 0.87*
0.81 1.04 1,17 1.03
Control 208
M 6.08 6.30 6,75 0.66
SD 0.99 1011 1.24 1.04
11+ start
Experimentel 76
6.12 6,48 6.91 0.80
SD 0.83 1.08 1,23 1.11
Control 88
5.96 6.24 6.90 0,94
SD 0,95 1.02 1.05 0.92
12+ start
Experimental 114
M 6.10 6.31 7.00 0.91**
SD 0.80 1.02 1.13 0.97
Control 120
M. 6.17 6.35 6.64 0.46
R. 1.03 0.88 1.36 1.09
Notes. * = significantly greater than controls at p < .05
** = significantly greater than controls at p < .01
Time of tests: Pre-test 9/85; Mid-test 7/86; Post-test 7/87
11+ start: mean age at pre-test 1;11 12+ start: mean age at pre-test 13/5.
10
17. Table 3,
Bokys and Girls scores on PiaRetian Reasoning Tasks ift_main experiment schools
Group
11+ Boys
Experimental
M
SD
Controls
SD
11+ Girls
Experimental
Controls
SD
12+ Boys
Experimental
511
Controls
SD
12+ Girls
Experimental
aa
Controls
aa
Period of test
N
39
Pre- Mid- Post- Gain
5.85 6.35 6.65 0.80
0.86 1.03 1.23 1.03
50
5.95 6.42 7.04 1.09
1.17 1.01 1,16 1.01
37
6.40 6.61 7.19 0.79
0,72 1.14 1,18 1,19
38
5.97 5.99 6.73 0.76
0.55 1.00 0.86 0.76
56
6.20 6.50 7.36 1.16i*
0,78 1.09 1.07 0.95
63
6.24 6.37 6.51 0.27
1.03 0.95 1.39 1.01
58
6.00 6.13 6.67 0,67
0.81 0.92 1.09 0.94
57
6.10 6.33 6.77 0.67
1.02 0.80 1c32 1,13
Note 1* . significantly greater than controls at p < .01
37
18. Table 4
Pre-post-test gain scores on Piagetian Reasoning_Ta$ks for 11+ & 12+ bug,
related to pre-test score grouping
Group
11+ Boys
Experimental
Controls
M
a
12+ Boys
Experimental
a
Controls
Pre-test score range
(5.0 5.0 - 5.9 6.0 - 6.9 >7.0
1.04 (7) 0.83 (14) 0.77 (15) 0.27 (3)
1.08 1.14 1.00 0.84
1.51 (11) 1.38 (11) 0.89 (22) 0.45 (6)
1.61 0.64 0.64 0.97
1.861(9) 0.994(12) 1.041(26) 1.01 (9)
0,79 1.02 0.86 1.08
0.31 (8) -0.19 (13) 0,47 (30) 0.:26 (12)
1.47 1.27 0.76 0.26
Notes, In brackets are given the number of boys in each sub-group,
I = Experimental gain score significantly greater than controls at p < .05
6
19. Table 5,
aln s ores of e ch experimental on Piagetian Re =sons ix Tasks compacei
with (a) CASE control groups and (b) CSMS (076; 1978) survey_data.
Controls
Experimentals
Age class N pre-mid pre-post N pre-mid pre-post
11+ 0501 Boys 7 -0.30 -0.21
Girls 9 0.15 0.19 CASE Boys 50 0.47 1.09
0502 Boys 9 -0.01 0.78 Girls 38 0.02 0.76
Girls 8 -0.26 0,45
0601 Boys 12 1.01 1.29 CSMS Boys >700 0.70 0.90
Girls 11 0,10 0.84 Girls >700 0.88 0.92
0901 Boys 11 0.89 0.92
Girls 9 0.83 1:65
12+ 0301 Boys 7 -0.41 1.16
Girls 8 0.13 0.59
0302 Boys 8 0.78 1.08 CASE Boys 63 0.13 0.27
Girls 6 -0.10 0.78 Girls 57 0,23 0.67
0701 Boys 8 0.74 0.91
Girls 11 0.57 0.92
0801 Boys 7 -0.07 125 CSMS Boys >700 0,15 0.43
Girls 11 0,41 0.90 Girls >700 0.39 0.62
0902 Boys 7 1.03 1.72
Girls 7 0,30 1.10
1001 Boys 7 -0.22 0.67
Girls 8 -0.36 -0.05
1101 Boys 12 0.20 1.29
Girls 7 -0.37 0,30
;9
20. Table 6
Changes in class means for 12+ boys expressed as Percentiles in relation to
the CSMS survey data
Group Pre-test
at 121
Post-test
at 14+
Mean change
All 48th 51st -3
Controls
Class
0301 56th 32nd 24
0302 67th 45th 22
0701 38th 23rd 15
0801 63rd 36th 27
0902 52nd 17th 35
1001 33rd 25th 8
1101 42nd 18th 24
All
Experimentals 49th 26th 23
'2;0
21. Figure 1: Cognitive development of CASE ex -rimental group
ouover
two anJ a half years compared with a control grp.
- Laboratory school.
3R 71
Level of
developpeclt
control
6.5
2114 6.er'experimental
R=29
1
int ervent ion
28
Pre Tests Mid hist Oelivpd
12/84 Dates 7/85 7/86 7/g7
Figure 2: Cognitive development of CASE experimental group over
two years compared with a control group - Main
Experiment
start 7,
of 3R
6.?
Level of
developme t
6.5
6.25
start
of 28 +6
experimenta
10198
control
M=288
gain =8.8?
gain = 9.66
9/85
Tests
Dates
Mtc
7/1V