Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book[WLO .docx

Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book
[WLO: 1] [CLO: 1]
Prior to beginning work on this assignment,
Review Chapters 6, 7, and 9 of your text.
Review the cognition and language development milestones
from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on the web
page
Basic Information (Links to an external site.)
.
Identify one age-group that you will discuss:
Infancy: Birth to 12 months
Toddler: 1 to 3 years
Early childhood: 4 to 8 years
Review and download the
Template.
The purpose of this assignment is to creatively demonstrate an
understanding of developmental milestones as they pertain to
cognition and language development.

Part 1:
Based on the required resources above, create a children’s
picture book using
StoryJumper (Links to an external site.)
that tells a story about a child’s typical day. Your story must
incorporate at least four cognitive and four language
development milestones for the age-group you have selected.
Your story can be about a fictional child or can be based on a
real child. Watch the video,
StoryJumper Tutorial (Links to an external site.)
, for assistance in using StoryJumper.
To complete this assignment, you must
Create a children’s picture book using StoryJumper.
Identify at least four cognitive development milestones
appropriate to the age-group selected.
Distinguish at least four language development milestones
appropriate to the age-group selected.
Discuss a typical day appropriate to the age-group selected.
Part 2:
Open the
Template
and complete the following items:
Provide the link to the StoryJumper picture book you created in
Part 1.

Indicate which age-group your picture book will discuss.
List at least four cognitive development milestones that are
included in your picture book.
List at least four language development milestones that are
included in your picture book.
Submit your Word document to Waypoint.
The Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture
Book:
Must be eight to 10 pages of text in length (not including title
page, images, and references page) and formatted according to
APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s
APA Style (Links to an external site.)
Must include a separate title page with the following:
Title of picture book
Student’s name
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted
Must document any information used from sources in APA style

as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s
Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)
Must include a separate references page or slide that is
formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford
Writing Center. See the
Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.)
resource in the Ashford Writing Center for specifications.
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory (p. 226)
According to Piaget, how does cognition develop?
■ Piaget’s
constructivist approach
assumes that children discover knowledge through their own
activity, moving through four invariant, universal stages.
According to Piaget, newborn infants have little in the way of
built-in structures; only at the end of the second year are they
capable of a cognitive approach to the world through
mental representations
.
■ In Piaget’s theory, psychological structures, or
schemes
, change with age in two ways: through
adaptation
, which consists of two complementary activities—
assimilation
and

accommodation
; and through
organization
, the internal rearrangement of schemes to form a strongly
interconnected cognitive system.
Equilibration
describes the changing balance of assimilation and
accommodation that gradually leads to more effective schemes.
The Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 Years (p. 228)
Describe major cognitive attainments of Piaget’s sensorimotor
stage.
■ In the
sensorimotor stage
, the
circular reaction
provides a means of adapting first schemes, and the newborn
baby’s reflexes transform into the older infant’s more flexible
action patterns. Eight- to 12-month-olds develop
intentional
, or
goal-directed, behavior
and begin to master
object permanence
. Twelve- to 18-month-olds become better problem solvers and
no longer make the
A-not-B search error
. Between 18 and 24 months, mental representation is evident
in sudden solutions to problems, mastery of object permanence
tasks involving invisible displacement,
deferred imitation

, and
make-believe play
.
What does follow-up research reveal about infant cognitive
development and the accuracy of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage?
■ Many studies suggest that infants display various
understandings earlier than Piaget believed. Some awareness of
object permanence, as revealed by the
violation-of-expectation method
, may be evident in the first few months, although searching for
hidden objects is a true cognitive advance. Young infants also
display deferred imitation, categorization, and
analogical problem solving
, and toddlers imitate rationally, by inferring others’
intentions—attainments that require mental representation.
■
Displaced reference
—the realization that words can be used to cue mental images
of things not physically present—is a major symbolic advance
that occurs around the first birthday. The capacity to use
language to modify mental representations improves from the
end of the second into the third year. By the middle of the
second year, toddlers treat realistic-looking pictures
symbolically.
■ Today, most researchers believe that newborns have more
built-in cognitive equipment for making sense of experience
than Piaget assumed, although they disagree on how much
initial understanding infants have.

The Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 Years (p. 239)
Describe advances in mental representation and cognitive
limitations during the preoperational stage.
■ Rapid advances in mental representation—notably, language,
make-believe play, and drawing—occur during Piaget’s
preoperational stage
. With age, make-believe becomes increasingly complex,
evident in
sociodramatic play
. Children’s drawings increase in complexity and realism.
■
Dual representation
improves during the third year as children realize that
photographs, drawings, models, and simple maps correspond to
circumstances in the real world.
■ Piaget described preschoolers as not yet capable of
operations
. Because
egocentrism
prevents children from accommodating, it contributes to
animistic thinking,
centration
, and lack of
reversibility
—difficulties that cause preschoolers to fail
conservation
and
hierarchical classification

tasks.
What does follow-up research reveal about preschoolers’
cognitive development and the accuracy of Piaget’s
preoperational stage?
■ When preschoolers are given familiar and simplified
problems, their performance is more mature than Piaget
assumed. They recognize differing perspectives, appreciate that
animals (but not inanimate objects) have biological properties,
have flexible and appropriate notions of magic, and reason
about transformations and cause-and-effect relations.
■ Preschoolers also show impressive skill at categorizing on the
basis of nonobservable characteristics, revealing that their
thinking is not dominated by appearances. Rather than being
absent in the preschool years, operational thinking develops
gradually.
The Concrete Operational Stage: 7 to 11 Years (p. 249)
What are the major characteristics of Piaget’s concrete
operational stage?
■ During the
concrete operational stage
, thought becomes more logical, flexible, and organized.
Mastery of conservation requires decentration and reversibility.
Children also become proficient at hierarchical classification
and
seriation
, including
transitive inference

. Spatial reasoning improves, as indicated by children’s
cognitive maps
.
■ Concrete operational thought is limited in that children have
difficulty reasoning about abstract ideas. Mastery of Piaget’s
concrete operational tasks takes place gradually.
Discuss follow-up research on concrete operational thought.
■ Cultural practices and schooling affect children’s mastery of
Piagetian tasks. Concrete operations are heavily influenced by
training, context, and cultural conditions.
The Formal Operational Stage: 11 Years and Older (p. 253)
Describe major characteristics of the formal operational stage
and typical consequences of adolescents’ advancing cognition.
■ In Piaget’s
formal operational stage
, adolescents become capable of
hypothetico-deductive reasoning
. When faced with a problem, they start with a hypothesis about
variables that might affect an outcome; deduce logical, testable
inferences; and systematically isolate and combine variables to
see which inferences are confirmed.
■ Adolescents also develop
propositional thought
—the ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without
referring to real-world circumstances.

■ As adolescents reflect on their own thoughts, two distorted
images of the relationship between self and other appear: the
imaginary audience
and the
personal fable
. Both result from gains in perspective taking.
■ Adolescents’ capacity to think about possibilities prompts
idealistic visions at odds with everyday reality, and they often
become fault-finding critics.
■ Compared with adults, adolescents are less effective at
decision making. They take greater risks under emotionally
charged conditions, less often weigh alternatives, and more
often fall back on well-learned intuitive judgments.
What does follow-up research reveal about formal operational
thought?
■ On tasks requiring hypothetico-deductive reasoning, school-
age children cannot evaluate evidence that bears on three or
more variables at once. They also do not grasp the
logical necessity
of propositional thought.
■ Adolescents and adults are most likely to think abstractly and
systematically in situations in which they have had extensive
guidance and practice in using such reasoning. Individuals in
tribal and village societies rarely do well on tasks typically
used to assess formal operational reasoning. Learning activities
in school provide adolescents with rich opportunities to acquire
formal operations.

Piaget and Education (p. 259)
Describe educational implications of Piaget’s theory.
■ A Piagetian classroom promotes discovery learning,
sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn, and acceptance of
individual differences.
Overall Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory (p. 260)
Summarize contributions and shortcomings of Piaget’s theory.
■ Piaget emphasized children’s active contributions to their own
development, inspired the contemporary focus on mechanisms
of cognitive change, and provided a useful “road map” of
cognitive development. However, he offered only a vague
account of how cognition changes. Children’s cognitive
attainments are less coherent and more gradual than Piaget’s
stages indicate.
■ Some researchers reject Piaget’s stages while retaining his
view of cognitive development as an active, constructive
process. Others support a less tightly knit stage concept. Still
others deny both Piaget’s stages and his belief in the existence
of general reasoning abilities.
The Core Knowledge Perspective (p. 261)
Explain the core knowledge perspective on cognitive
development, noting research that supports its assumptions.

■ According to the
core knowledge perspective
, infants are innately equipped with core domains of thought
that support rapid cognitive development. Each core domain is
essential for survival and develops independently, resulting in
uneven, domain-specific changes. Violation-of-expectation
research suggests that young infants have impressive physical
and numerical knowledge.
■ The
theory theory
regards children as naïve theorists who draw on innate
concepts to explain their everyday experiences and then test
their theory, revising it to account for new information. In
support of this view, children reason about everyday events in
ways consistent with the event’s core domain. Physical and
psychological explanations emerge earlier than biological
explanations, suggesting that biological knowledge may have
little or no innate foundation.
What are the strengths and limitations of the core knowledge
perspective?
■ Core knowledge researchers are testing intriguing ideas about
why certain cognitive skills emerge early and develop rapidly.
But critics believe that violation-of-expectation studies are not
adequate to show that infants are endowed with knowledge.
The core knowledge perspective has not offered clarity on how
cognition changes.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (p. 266)
Explain Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development, noting the

importance of social experience and language.
■ Vygotsky viewed human cognition as inherently social and
saw language as the foundation for all higher cognitive
processes. According to Vygotsky,
private speech
, or language used for self-guidance, emerges out of social
communication as adults and more skilled peers help children
master challenging tasks within their
zone of proximal development
. Eventually, private speech is internalized as inner, verbal
thought.
■
Intersubjectivity
and
scaffolding
are two features of social interaction that promote transfer of
cognitive processes to children.
Guided participation
recognizes cultural and situational variations in adult support
of children’s efforts.
According to Vygotsky, what is the role of make-believe play in
cognitive development?
■ Vygotsky viewed make-believe play as a unique, broadly
influential zone of proximal development in which children
learn to act in accord with internal ideas rather than on
impulse.
Vygotsky and Education (p. 269)

Describe educational implications of Vygotsky’s theory.
■ A Vygotskian classroom emphasizes assisted discovery
through teachers’ guidance and peer collaboration. When
formal schooling begins, literacy activities prompt children to
shift to a higher level of cognitive activity, in which they
proficiently manipulate and control their culture’s symbol
systems.
■ Vygotsky-based educational innovations include
reciprocal teaching
and
cooperative learning
, in which multiple partners stimulate and encourage one
another.
Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory (p. 272)
Cite strengths and limitations of Vygotsky’s theory.
■ Vygotsky’s theory helps us understand wide cultural variation
in cognitive skills and underscores the vital role of teaching in
cognitive development. But in some cultures, verbal dialogues
are not the only or most important means through which
children learn. Vygotsky said little about biological
contributions to cognition and about how children internalize
social experiences to advance their thinking.
CHPATER 7 SUMMARY
The Information-Processing Approach
(p. 278)

■ Information-
processing theorists view the mind as a complex,symbol-
manipulating system through which information flows,much lik
e a computer. Researchers use computer-
like diagramsand flowcharts to analyze thinking into its compon
ents, mappingthe precise steps involved in thinking about a task
or problem.
A General Model of Information Processing
(p. 278)
Describe the store model of the human information processingsy
stem, noting implications for cognitive development and related
findings.
■ We hold, or store, information in three parts of the mental sys
temfor processing. The
sensory register
takes in a wide panorama ofinformation, but only momentarily.
The
short-term memorystore
retains attended-
to information briefly so we can activelymanipulate it in
working memory
to accomplish our goals. The
central executive
is the conscious, reflective part of the system,directing the flow
of information and implementing basicprocedures and complex
strategies. The more effectively weprocess information, the grea
ter the likelihood that mentalactivities will become
automatic processes
and that informationwill transfer to
long-term memory,
our limitless, permanentknowledge base.

■ The store model suggests, and research confirms, that several
aspects of the cognitive system improve with age. Working-
memory capacity increases, with individual differences predicti
ngintelligence test scores and academic achievement. Gains inpr
ocessing speed also occur, contributing to working-
memoryresources. Furthermore, children make strides in
executivefunction,
with preschoolers gaining in attention, suppressingimpulses, an
d flexible thinking and school-
age children andadolescents in integration of cognitive operatio
ns and strategiesthat enable increasingly difficult tasks.
Developmental Theories of Information Processing
(p. 282)
How do Case’s neo-
Piagetian theory and Siegler’s model ofstrategy choice explain c
hanges in children’s thinking?
■ Case’s
neo-Piagetian theory
accepts Piaget’s stages butattributes change within and between
stages to greater efficiencyin use of working-
memory capacity. Brain development, practicewith schemes and
automization, and formation of
centralconceptual structures
contribute to development. Case’s theoryprovides an informatio
n-processing explanation of the continuumof acquisition—
that many understandings appear in specificsituations at differe
nt times—
and thus is better able than Piaget’stheory to account for uneven
ness in cognitive development.
■ Siegler’s

model of strategy choice
highlights children’sexperimentation with and selection of men
tal strategies to accountfor the diversity and ever-
changing nature of children’s thinking.Strategy development fol
lows an overlapping-
waves pattern.When given challenging problems, children gener
ate a variety ofstrategies, gradually selecting from them on the
basis of accuracyand speed.
Attention
(p. 286)
Describe the development of attention, including sustained,selec
tive, and adaptable strategies.
■ Gains in sustained attention depend on rapid growth of thepre
frontal cortex, the capacity to generate increasingly complexpla
y goals, and adult scaffolding of attention. As sustainedattentio
n increases, children become better at focusing on relevantaspec
ts of a task and at flexibly adapting attention to taskrequirement
s. Sustained, selective, and adaptable attention dependon
inhibition,
the ability to control distracting stimuli.
■ Development of attentional (and memory) strategies tends too
ccur in four phases: (1)
production deficiency
(failure toproduce the strategy); (2)
control deficiency
(failure to executethe strategy effectively); (3)
utilization deficiency
(consistent useof the strategy, but with little or no performance
improvement);and (4)
effective strategy use.

■ From age 5 on, children undergo marked advances in
planning.
They learn much from cultural tools that support planning, adult
guidance and encouragement, and opportunities to practice.
Memory
(p. 292)
Describe the development of strategies for storing and retrievin
ginformation from memory.
■ Although the beginnings of memory strategies can be seen ine
arly childhood, young children seldom engage in
rehearsal
or
organization.
As use of these strategies improves, school-
agechildren combine them; the more strategies they usesimultan
eously, the better they remember.
Elaboration
emerges atthe end of middle childhood. Task demands and cult
uralcircumstances influence the development of memory strategi
es.
■
Recognition,
the simplest form of retrieval, is a fairly automaticprocess that
is highly accurate by the preschool years.
Recall
—generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus—
is morechallenging, shows much greater improvement with age,
and isstrongly associated with language development.
■ Even young children engage in
reconstruction

whenremembering complex, meaningful material. As originally
provided information decays and new information is presented,c
hildren make more inferences, and the coherence ofreconstructe
d information and its memorableness increase.However, much re
called information can be inaccurate.
■ According to
fuzzy-trace theory,
when information is encoded, itis reconstructed automatically i
nto a
gist
—
a vague, fuzzy versionthat is especially useful for reasoning. Wi
th age, children rely lesson verbatim memory and more on recon
structed gists, contributingto improved recall of details with age
.
Explain the development of episodic memory and its relationshi
p tosemantic memory.
■
Semantic memory
—our vast general knowledge system—
contributes vitally to and develops earlier than
episodic memory.
Not until 3 or 4 years of age do children have a well-
functioningmemory system of personally experienced events tha
t occurred ata specific time and place.
■ Like adults, young children remember familiar experiences int
erms of
scripts
—
a special form of episodic memory that permitsthem to predict
what might happen on future similar occasions.And as preschool
ers talk with adults about personally significantpast events, they

adopt the narrative thinking generated in thesedialogues, formi
ng an
autobiographical memory.
Childrenwhose parents use an elaborative rather than a repetitiv
econversational style produce more coherent and detailed perso
nalstories.
How does eyewitness memory change with age, and what factor
sinfluence the accuracy of children’s reports?
■ Compared with preschoolers, school-
age children are better atgiving accurate and detailed eyewitnes
s accounts and resistingadults’ misleading questions. When a bi
ased adult repeatedly asksleading questions, children are far mo
re likely to give falseinformation. Negative stereotyping of the
accused and a longdelay between the events and the child’s eye
witness report furthercontribute to inaccurate reporting.
Metacognition
(p. 303)
Describe the development of metacognitive knowledge andcogni
tive self-regulation.
■
Metacognition
expands greatly as children construct a naïve
theory of mind,
a coherent understanding of people as mentalbeings. From early
to middle childhood, children becomeincreasingly conscious of
cognitive capacities and strategies. Theycome to view the mind
as an active, constructive agent rather thana passive container o
f information. As older children considerinteractions among var
iables, metacognitive knowledge becomesmore complex and inte
grated.

■
Cognitive self-regulation
—
continually monitoring andcontrolling progress toward a goal—
develops gradually. Itimproves with adult instruction in effectiv
e strategy use andpredicts academic success.
Applications of Information Processing to AcademicLearning
(p. 307)
Discuss the development of reading, mathematics, and scientific
reasoning, noting the implications of research findings forteachi
ng.
■
Emergent literacy
reveals that young children understand a greatdeal about writte
n language before they read and write inconventional ways. Pres
choolers gradually revise incorrect ideasabout the meaning of w
ritten symbols as their cognitive capacitiesimprove, as they enc
ounter writing in many contexts, and as adultshelp them with wr
itten communication.
■
Phonological awareness
strongly predicts emergent literacyknowledge and later reading
achievement. Vocabulary andgrammatical knowledge, adult–
child narrative conversations, andinformal literacy-
related experiences also foster literacydevelopment.
■ As children make the transition to conventional literacy,phon
ological awareness, processing speed, and visual scanningand di
scrimination contribute to reading progress. A combinationof
whole-language

and
phonics approaches
is most effective forteaching beginning reading.
■ Mathematical reasoning also builds on informally acquiredkn
owledge. Toddlers beginning grasp of
ordinality
serves as thebasis for more complex understandings. As presch
oolers gainexperience with counting, they understand
cardinality
and beginto solve simple addition and subtraction problems. W
hen adultsprovide many occasions for counting and comparing q
uantities,children construct basic numerical concepts sooner.
■ During the early school years, children acquire basic math fac
tsthrough a combination of frequent practice, reasoning aboutnu
mber concepts, and teaching that conveys effective strategies.Th
e best mathematics instruction combines practice inexperimenti
ng with strategies and conceptual understanding.
■ The ability to coordinate theory with evidence—
the heart ofscientific reasoning—
improves from childhood to adolescence.Greater working-
memory resources and exposure to increasinglycomplex proble
ms in school contribute to the metacognitiveunderstanding that i
s vital for reasoning scientifically.
Evaluation of the Information-Processing Approach
(p. 314)
Summarize the strengths and limitations of the information-
processing approach.
■ A major strength of the information-
processing approach is itsprecision in breaking down cognition i

nto its components.Information processing research has contribu
ted greatly to thedesign of teaching techniques that advance chil
dren’s thinking.
■ Nevertheless, computer models of cognitive processing do not
reflect the richness of real-
life learning experiences and have nottold us much about the lin
ks between cognition and other areas ofdevelopment.
CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
Components of Language
(p. 360)
What are the four components of language?
■ Language consists of four subsystems: (1)
phonology,
the rulesgoverning the structure and sequence of speech sounds
; (2)
semantics,
the way underlying concepts are expressed in words;(3)
grammar,
consisting of
syntax,
the rules by which words arearranged in sentences, and
morphology,
markers that vary wordmeaning; and (4)
pragmatics,
the rules for engaging inappropriate and effective conversation.
Theories of Language Development
(p. 360)

Describe and evaluate major theories of language development.
■ Chomsky’s nativist theory proposes a
language acquisitiondevice (LAD)
containing a
universal grammar,
or storehouse ofrules common to all languages. The LAD permi
ts children, oncethey have sufficient vocabulary, to speak gram
matically andcomprehend sentences in any language to which th
ey are exposed.Animal research is consistent with this perspecti
ve, revealing thata complex language system is unique to human
s.
■ The broad association of language functions, especiallygramm
atical competence, with left-
hemispheric regions of thecerebral cortex is in accord with Cho
msky’s notion of a brainprepared to process language. Evidence
for a sensitive period oflanguage development also supports the
nativist view.
■ Researchers have challenged the nativist perspective on sever
algrounds, including the difficulty of specifying a universalgra
mmar. Also, children’s continuous, gradual mastery of manycon
structions is inconsistent with the nativist assumption ofinnately
determined grammatical knowledge.
■ According to the interactionist perspective, languagedevelop
ment results from exchanges between inner capacities andenviro
nmental influences. The most influential information-
processing accounts are connectionist, or artificial neural netwo
rk,models, which show that powerful, general cognitive capaciti
esare sufficient to detect certain linguistic patterns. Other evide
nceconfirms that babies identify basic language patterns with th
esame strategies they use to understand nonlinguistic experience
s.

■ Social interactionists believe that children’s social skills andl
anguage experiences combine with native capacity to profoundl
yaffect language development. But debate continues over wheth
erchildren make sense of their complex language environments
byapplying general cognitive capacities or capacities specially t
unedto language.
Prelinguistic Development: Getting Ready to Talk
(p. 368)
Discuss receptivity to language, development of speech sounds,
andconversational skills during infancy.
■ Newborns are capable of
categorical speech perception
and aresensitive to a wider range of speech categories than exis
ts in theirown language. Between 6 and 8 months, infants start t
o organizespeech into the phonemic categories of their native to
ngue. In thesecond half of the first year, they have begun to ana
lyze theinternal structure of sentences and words. Adults’ use of
infant-directed speech (IDS)
eases language learning for babies.
■ Infants begin
cooing
around 2 months,
babbling
around 6months. Over the first year, the range of babbled soun
ds expands.Then, as infants get ready to talk, sound and intonati
on patternsstart to resemble those of the child’s native language
.
■ At 10 to 11 months, babies’ skill at establishing
joint attention

improves, and by the end of the first year they actively engage i
nturntaking games and use two communicative gestures, the
protodeclarative
and the
protoimperative,
to influence others’behavior. By the second year, caregiver–
child interactioncontributes greatly to language progress.
Phonological Development
(p. 373)
Describe the course of phonological development.
■ First words are influenced partly by the sounds children canpr
onounce. Because associating new words with their referentstax
es toddlers’ working memories, they tend to miss the finedetails
of a new word’s sounds, which contributes to earlypronunciatio
n errors.
■ Young children apply systematic phonological strategies tosi
mplify challenging pronunciations. Gradually, they refineminim
al words into full words with correct stress patterns. As thevoca
l tract matures and preschoolers engage in active problemsolvin
g, pronunciation improves greatly. But syllable stresspatterns si
gnaling subtle differences in meaning are not mastereduntil mid
dle childhood or adolescence.
Semantic Development
(p. 376)
Summarize the course of semantic development, noting individu
aldifferences.
■ Language

comprehension
develops ahead of
production.
Formost children, rate of word learning increases steadily andc
ontinuously from toddlerhood through the preschool years. Tobu
ild vocabulary quickly, children engage in
fast-mapping.
■ Girls show faster early vocabulary growth than boys, andtemp
eramentally shy or negative toddlers acquire language moreslow
ly. Low-
SES children, who experience less verbalstimulation, usually ha
ve smaller vocabularies. Most toddlers usea
referential style
of language learning; their early words mainlyrefer to objects.
Some use an
expressive style,
producing moresocial formulas and pronouns.
■ Early vocabularies typically emphasize object words; action a
ndstate words appear soon after. When first learning words, chil
drenmake errors of
underextension
and
overextension.
Their wordcoinages and metaphors expand the range of meanin
gs they canexpress.
■ Reading contributes enormously to vocabulary growth in midd
lechildhood. School-
age children can grasp word meanings fromdefinitions, and com
prehension of metaphor and humor expands.Adolescents’ ability
to reason abstractly leads to an appreciationof irony, sarcasm, a
nd figurative language.
Discuss ideas about how semantic development takes place,incl

uding the influence of memory and strategies for wordlearning.
■ A special part of short-term memory, a
phonological store
thatpermits retention of speech-
based information, supports youngchildren’s vocabulary growth.
After age 5, semantic knowledgealso influences how quickly ch
ildren form phonological traces,and both factors affect word lea
rning.
■ Children figure out the meanings of words by contrasting the
mwith words they already know and assigning new words to gap
s intheir vocabulary. According to one view, children are innate
lybiased to induce word meanings using certain principles, such
as a
mutual exclusivity bias
and
syntactic bootstrapping.
■ An alternate perspective is that children build their vocabulari
eswith the same cognitive strategies that they apply to nonlingui
sticstimuli. According to the
emergentist coalition model,
childrenfigure out word meanings from a coalition of cues—
perceptual,social, and linguistic—
which shift in importance with age.
Grammatical Development
(p. 384)
Describe the course of grammatical development.
■ Between 1½ and 2½ years, vocabulary reaches 200 to 250 wor
dsand two word utterances called
telegraphic speech

appear. Theseearly word combinations do not reflect a consiste
nt, flexiblegrammar. As children generate three-
word sentences, they usegrammatical rules in a piecemeal fashio
n, gradually refining andgeneralizing structures.
■ English-speaking children add
grammatical morphemes
in aconsistent order that reflects both structural and semanticco
mplexity. Once children acquire a regular morphological rule,th
ey
overregularize,
extending it to words that are exceptions.Over time, children m
aster expressions based on auxiliary verbs,such as negatives and
questions. Between ages 3½ and 6, they adda variety of intricat
e constructions. Certain forms, such as thepassive voice and infi
nitive phrases, continue to be refined inmiddle childhood.
Discuss ideas about how grammatical development takes place,i
ncluding strategies and communicative support for mastering ne
wstructures.
■ Some experts believe grammar is a product of general cogniti
vedevelopment. According to one view, children engage in
semanticbootstrapping,
relying on word meanings to figure out sentencestructure. Othe
rs believe that children master grammar throughdirect observati
on of the structure of language. Still others agreewith the essenc
e of Chomsky’s theory. One idea accepts semanticbootstrapping
but proposes that grammatical categories are innate.Another sp
eculation is that children have a built-
in set ofprocedures for analyzing language, which supports the
discoveryof grammatical regularities.
■ Adults provide children with indirect feedback about grammat
icalerrors by asking for clarification or by restructuring their sp
eechusing

recasts
and
expansions.
However, the impact of suchfeedback on grammatical developm
ent has been challenged.
Pragmatic Development
(p. 390)
Describe the course of pragmatic development.
■ Even 2-year-
olds are effective conversationalists. Strategies thathelp sustain
interaction, such as
turnabout
and
shading,
areadded in early and middle childhood. Children’s understandi
ng of
illocutionary intent
also improves, and they also acquire moreeffective
referential communication skills.
■ From the preschool to school years, children produce moreorg
anized, detailed, and evaluative narratives, which vary widelyin
form across cultures. The ability to generate clear oralnarratives
contributes to literacy development. Preschoolers arealready se
nsitive to
speech registers.
Parents tutor young childrenin politeness routines, emphasizing
the importance of adaptinglanguage to social expectations.
Development of Metalinguistic Awareness
(p. 394)

Describe the development of metalinguistic awareness and its ro
lein language-related attainments.
■ Preschoolers show the beginnings of
metalinguistic awareness.
Their understandings are good predictors of vocabulary andgra
mmatical development and, in the case of phonologicalawarenes
s, literacy development. Major advances inmetalinguistic skills t
ake place in middle childhood.
Bilingualism: Learning Two Languages in Childhood
(p. 394)
How do children become bilingual, and what are the advantages
ofbilingualism?
■ Children who learn two languages in early childhood acquiree
ach according to a typical timetable. When school-
age childrenacquire a second language after mastering the first,
they take fiveto seven years to attain the competence of native-
speakingagemates. Bilingual children sometimes engage in
code switching
between the two languages.
■ Bilingual children are advanced in cognitive development and
metalinguistic awareness—
advantages that provide strongjustification for bilingual educati
on programs in schools.

Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book[WLO .docx

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book[WLO .docx

Similar to Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book[WLO .docx (20)

More from mary772

More from mary772 (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Cognitive and Language Development Milestones Picture Book[WLO .docx