Classification becomes one of the important elements in the forward scatter radar (FSR) micro-sensors network. This classification performance is dependent on the target’s profile behaviour and the network’s surrounding; and one of the factors that cause the reduction of classification probability is the presence of ground clutter. As the volume of clutter increases, their masking effect becomes greater and may result in more significant errors in target classification. Hence, to reduce misclassification in the FSR sensor network, a new clutter reduction technique based on the ground clutter model is proposed. Simulated ground clutter is modeled based on the estimated signal to clutter ratio (SCR) of the received signal. The clutter effect is diminished by eliminating simulated like-clutter from the receiving signals. The result shows improvement in the classification accuracy, especially for the minimum value of the SCR and this new technique uses only one database which will shorten the processing time and reduce the overall database’s size.
A small vessel detection using a co-located multi-frequency FMCW MIMO radar IJECEIAES
Small vessels detection is a known issue due to its low radar cross section (RCS). An existing shore-based vessel tracking radar is for long-distance commercial vessels detection. Meanwhile, a vessel-mounted radar system known for its reliability has a limitation due to its single radar coverage. The paper presented a co-located frequency modulated continuous waveform (FMCW) maritime radar for small vessel detection utilising a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) configuration. The radar behaviour is numerically simulated for detecting a Swerling 1 target which resembles small maritime’s vessels. The simulated MIMO configuration comprised two transmitting and receiving nodes. The proposal is to utilize a multi-frequency FMCW MIMO configuration in a maritime environment by applying the spectrum averaging (SA) to fuse MIMO received signals for range and velocity estimation. The analysis was summarised and displayed in terms of estimation error performance, probability of error and average error. The simulation outcomes an improvement of 2.2 dB for a static target, and 0.1 dB for a moving target, in resulting the 20% probability of range error with the MIMO setup. A moving vessel's effect was observed to degrade the range error estimation performance between 0.6 to 2.7 dB. Meanwhile, the proposed method was proven to improve the 20% probability of velocity error by 1.75 dB. The impact of multi-frequency MIMO was also observed to produce better average error performance.
Simulation of Multiple Target Detection with Frequency Modulated Continuous W...IRJET Journal
This document discusses simulating a frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar system for detecting multiple targets. It describes how FMCW radar works by transmitting a frequency modulated chirp signal and using the frequency shift between the transmitted and received signals to determine target range and velocity. The simulation aims to improve range resolution through signal processing algorithms like fast Fourier transform (FFT), constant false alarm rate (CFAR), and multiple signal classification (MUSIC). It creates an environment with multiple targets and uses the algorithms to detect the targets and determine their distances, velocities, and angular positions.
This document summarizes an article from the International Journal of Computer Engineering and Technology that models and simulates the physical layer of the IEEE 802.22 wireless standard over a multipath fading channel. It describes the IEEE 802.22 standard and its use of OFDM and OFDMA to provide resilience against multipath propagation. It then models the physical layer in Simulink, including modulation, channel effects, demodulation and decoding. Finally, it presents simulation results for different modulation schemes and coding rates over multipath channels to analyze the performance of the physical layer under varying conditions.
Automatic target detection and localization using ultra-wideband radarIJECEIAES
The pulse ultra-wide band (UWB) radar consists of switching of energy of very short duration in an ultra-broadband emission chain, and the UWB signal emitted is an ultrashort pulse, of the order of nanoseconds, without a carrier. These systems can indicate the presence and distances of a distant object, call a target, and determine its size, shape, speed, and trajectory. In this paper, we present a UWB radar system allowing the detection of the presence of a target and its localization in a road environment based on the principle of correlation of the reflected signal with the reference and the determination of its correlation peak.
Sensing of Spectrum for SC-FDMA Signals in Cognitive Radio NetworksIRJET Journal
The document proposes a technique for detecting spectrum used by interleaved single-carrier frequency-division multiple access (SC-FDMA) signals in cognitive radio networks. A metric is defined based on cyclostationary features to identify if subcarriers allocated to primary users are available for secondary users. The Neyman-Pearson test is used to examine two hypotheses (H0 and H1) representing the absence and presence of primary users. Simulation results show the proposed method outperforms existing techniques like autocorrelation of cyclic prefix and energy detection, with lower complexity but similar detection performance at low signal-to-noise ratios. The performance is evaluated under various conditions like number of users, pilot signals, window length, and block length
Dynamic Spectrum Allocation in Wireless sensor NetworksIJMER
Radio frequency spectrum is considered the most expensive and scarce resource among all wireless
network resources, and it is closely followed by the energy consumption, especially in low energy, battery powered
wireless sensor network devices. These days, there is a tremendous growth in the applications of wireless sensor
networks (WSNs) operating in unlicensed spectrum bands (ISM). Moreover, due to the rapid growth of wireless
devices that are designed to be operated in unlicensed spectrum bands, these spectrum bands have been overcrowded.
The problem with overcrowded spectrum or scarcity of spectrum can be solved by Dynamic Allocation of Spectrum.
In this paper we have presented the implementation and analysis of dynamic spectrum allocation in Wireless Sensors
Networks using the concept of Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Network.
This document summarizes a research paper on using time-domain signal cross-correlation for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio systems applied to vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs). It aims to address spectrum scarcity issues in VANETs by allowing vehicles to opportunistically access TV white space spectrum when licensed spectrum is unavailable. The time-domain symbol cross-correlation technique is analyzed for spectrum sensing performance over Rayleigh fading channels. Analytical expressions for average miss detection probability are derived and simulation results show the probability of miss detection decreases with increasing SNR and number of secondary users. The time-domain symbol cross-correlation method provides good spectrum sensing performance at low SNRs for cognitive radio in VANETs.
A small vessel detection using a co-located multi-frequency FMCW MIMO radar IJECEIAES
Small vessels detection is a known issue due to its low radar cross section (RCS). An existing shore-based vessel tracking radar is for long-distance commercial vessels detection. Meanwhile, a vessel-mounted radar system known for its reliability has a limitation due to its single radar coverage. The paper presented a co-located frequency modulated continuous waveform (FMCW) maritime radar for small vessel detection utilising a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) configuration. The radar behaviour is numerically simulated for detecting a Swerling 1 target which resembles small maritime’s vessels. The simulated MIMO configuration comprised two transmitting and receiving nodes. The proposal is to utilize a multi-frequency FMCW MIMO configuration in a maritime environment by applying the spectrum averaging (SA) to fuse MIMO received signals for range and velocity estimation. The analysis was summarised and displayed in terms of estimation error performance, probability of error and average error. The simulation outcomes an improvement of 2.2 dB for a static target, and 0.1 dB for a moving target, in resulting the 20% probability of range error with the MIMO setup. A moving vessel's effect was observed to degrade the range error estimation performance between 0.6 to 2.7 dB. Meanwhile, the proposed method was proven to improve the 20% probability of velocity error by 1.75 dB. The impact of multi-frequency MIMO was also observed to produce better average error performance.
Simulation of Multiple Target Detection with Frequency Modulated Continuous W...IRJET Journal
This document discusses simulating a frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar system for detecting multiple targets. It describes how FMCW radar works by transmitting a frequency modulated chirp signal and using the frequency shift between the transmitted and received signals to determine target range and velocity. The simulation aims to improve range resolution through signal processing algorithms like fast Fourier transform (FFT), constant false alarm rate (CFAR), and multiple signal classification (MUSIC). It creates an environment with multiple targets and uses the algorithms to detect the targets and determine their distances, velocities, and angular positions.
This document summarizes an article from the International Journal of Computer Engineering and Technology that models and simulates the physical layer of the IEEE 802.22 wireless standard over a multipath fading channel. It describes the IEEE 802.22 standard and its use of OFDM and OFDMA to provide resilience against multipath propagation. It then models the physical layer in Simulink, including modulation, channel effects, demodulation and decoding. Finally, it presents simulation results for different modulation schemes and coding rates over multipath channels to analyze the performance of the physical layer under varying conditions.
Automatic target detection and localization using ultra-wideband radarIJECEIAES
The pulse ultra-wide band (UWB) radar consists of switching of energy of very short duration in an ultra-broadband emission chain, and the UWB signal emitted is an ultrashort pulse, of the order of nanoseconds, without a carrier. These systems can indicate the presence and distances of a distant object, call a target, and determine its size, shape, speed, and trajectory. In this paper, we present a UWB radar system allowing the detection of the presence of a target and its localization in a road environment based on the principle of correlation of the reflected signal with the reference and the determination of its correlation peak.
Sensing of Spectrum for SC-FDMA Signals in Cognitive Radio NetworksIRJET Journal
The document proposes a technique for detecting spectrum used by interleaved single-carrier frequency-division multiple access (SC-FDMA) signals in cognitive radio networks. A metric is defined based on cyclostationary features to identify if subcarriers allocated to primary users are available for secondary users. The Neyman-Pearson test is used to examine two hypotheses (H0 and H1) representing the absence and presence of primary users. Simulation results show the proposed method outperforms existing techniques like autocorrelation of cyclic prefix and energy detection, with lower complexity but similar detection performance at low signal-to-noise ratios. The performance is evaluated under various conditions like number of users, pilot signals, window length, and block length
Dynamic Spectrum Allocation in Wireless sensor NetworksIJMER
Radio frequency spectrum is considered the most expensive and scarce resource among all wireless
network resources, and it is closely followed by the energy consumption, especially in low energy, battery powered
wireless sensor network devices. These days, there is a tremendous growth in the applications of wireless sensor
networks (WSNs) operating in unlicensed spectrum bands (ISM). Moreover, due to the rapid growth of wireless
devices that are designed to be operated in unlicensed spectrum bands, these spectrum bands have been overcrowded.
The problem with overcrowded spectrum or scarcity of spectrum can be solved by Dynamic Allocation of Spectrum.
In this paper we have presented the implementation and analysis of dynamic spectrum allocation in Wireless Sensors
Networks using the concept of Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Network.
This document summarizes a research paper on using time-domain signal cross-correlation for spectrum sensing in cognitive radio systems applied to vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs). It aims to address spectrum scarcity issues in VANETs by allowing vehicles to opportunistically access TV white space spectrum when licensed spectrum is unavailable. The time-domain symbol cross-correlation technique is analyzed for spectrum sensing performance over Rayleigh fading channels. Analytical expressions for average miss detection probability are derived and simulation results show the probability of miss detection decreases with increasing SNR and number of secondary users. The time-domain symbol cross-correlation method provides good spectrum sensing performance at low SNRs for cognitive radio in VANETs.
Multi-Target Classification Using Acoustic Signatures in Wireless Sensor Netw...CSCJournals
This document surveys techniques for classifying vehicles based on acoustic signals detected by wireless sensor networks. It discusses three main areas: feature extraction, classification techniques, and information fusion. For feature extraction, it describes techniques in the time, frequency and time-frequency domains like FFT, wavelet transforms, MFCC. It evaluates classifiers like ANN, SVM, HMM using features from spectrum analysis and wavelet packet transform. Finally, it discusses information fusion techniques like majority voting, Bayesian methods to improve classification performance.
Robust automotive radar interference mitigation using multiplicative-adaptive...IJECEIAES
Radar is one of the sensors that have significant attention to be implemented in an autonomous vehicle since its robustness under many possible environmental conditions such as fog, rain, and poor light. However, the implementation risks interference because of transmitting and/or receiving radar signals from/to other vehicles. This interference will increase the floor noise that can mask the target signal. This paper proposes multiplicative-adaptive filtering and Hilbert transform to mitigate the interference effect and maintain the target signal detectability. The method exploited the trade-off between the step-size and sidelobe effect on the least mean square-based adaptive filtering to improve the target detection accuracy, especially in the long-range case. The numerical analysis on the millimeter-wave frequency modulated continuous wave radar with multiple interferers concluded that the proposed method could maintain and enhance the target signal even if the target range is relatively far from the victim radar.
Implementation of Adaptive Digital Beamforming using CordicEditor IJCATR
This document summarizes an article that proposes implementing adaptive digital beamforming using the CORDIC (COordinate Rotation DIgital Computer) algorithm. It first provides background on beamforming, sonar imaging, and the CORDIC theory. It then describes the proposed work of using CORDIC-based beamforming in an underwater sonar system to detect objects and determine angles. The system would transmit beamformed data, generate beamformed data at the receiver, and then use an optimized CORDIC algorithm to eliminate interference and noise from the received data.
Investigations on real time RSSI based outdoor target tracking using kalman f...IJECEIAES
Target tracking is essential for localization and many other applications in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Kalman filter is used to reduce measurement noise in target tracking. In this research TelosB motes are used to measure Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI). RSSI measurement doesn‟t require any external hardware compare to other distance estimation methods such as Time of Arrival (TOA), Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) and Angle of Arrival (AoA). Distances between beacon and non-anchor nodes are estimated using the measured RSSI values. Position of the nonanchor node is estimated after finding the distance between beacon and nonanchor nodes. A new algorithm is proposed with Kalman filter for location estimation and target tracking in order to improve localization accuracy called as MoteTrack InOut system. This system is implemented in real time for indoor and outdoor tracking. Localization error reduction obtained in an outdoor environment is 75%.
Wavelet-based sensing technique in cognitive radio networkTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Cognitive radio is a smart radio that can change its transmitter parameter based on interaction with the environment in which it operates. The demand for frequency spectrum is growing due to a big data issue as many Internet of Things (IoT) devices are in the network. Based on previous research, most frequency spectrum was used, but some spectrums were not used, called spectrum hole. Energy detection is one of the spectrum sensing methods that has been frequently used since it is easy to use and does not require license users to have any prior signal understanding. But this technique is incapable of detecting at low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) levels. Therefore, the wavelet-based sensing is proposed to overcome this issue and detect spectrum holes. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the performance of wavelet-based sensing and compare it with the energy detection technique. The findings show that the percentage of detection in wavelet-based sensing is 83% higher than energy detection performance. This result indicates that the wavelet-based sensing has higher precision in detection and the interference towards primary user can be decreased.
A Novel Carrier Indexing Method for Side Lobe Suppression and Bit Error Rate ...IRJET Journal
This paper proposes a novel carrier indexing method using variable basis functions to suppress side lobes and reduce bit error rates in non-continuous OFDM (NC-OFDM) systems. Existing active interference cancellation techniques used fixed-length rectangular basis functions for cancellation carriers, which were not optimal. The proposed method groups cancellation carriers by frequency position and shapes them with variable-length waveforms to more effectively suppress NC-OFDM side lobes while reducing inter-carrier interference. Simulation results show the proposed approach achieves over 80dB side lobe reduction and negligible inter-carrier interference compared to existing techniques. The method provides reliable data transmission between primary and secondary nodes in cognitive radio networks with lower bit error rates.
Adaptive 3D ray tracing approach for indoor radio signal prediction at 3.5 GHzIJECEIAES
This paper explained an adaptive ray tracing technique in modelling indoor radio wave propagation. As compared with conventional ray tracing approach, the presented ray tracing approach offers an optimized method to trace the travelling radio signal by introducing flexibility and adaptive features in ray launching algorithm in modelling the radio wave for indoor scenarios. The simulation result was compared with measurements data for verification. By analyzing the results, the proposed adaptive technique showed a better improvement in simulation time, power level and coverage in modelling the radio wave propagation for indoor scenario and may benefit in the development of signal propagation simulators for future technologies.
Spectral estimator effects on accuracy of speed-over-ground radarIJECEIAES
Spectral estimation is a critical signal processing step in speed-over-ground (SoG) radar. It is argued that, for accurate speed estimation, spectral estimation should use low bias and variance estimator. However, there is no evaluation on spectral estimation techniques in terms of estimating mean Doppler frequency to date. In this paper, we evaluate two common spectral estimation techniques, namely periodogram based on Fourier transformation and the autoregressive (AR) based on burg algorithm. These spectral estimators are evaluated in terms of their bias and variance in estimating a mean frequency. For this purpose, the spectral estimators are evaluated with different Doppler signals that varied in mean frequency and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Results in this study indicates that the periodogram method performs well in most of the tests while the AR method did not perform as well as these but offered a slight improvement over the periodogram in terms of variance.
A Review on Identification of RADAR Range for the Target by using C BandIRJET Journal
This document discusses using C band radar to identify the range of targets. It begins by describing C band radar technology and how it uses electromagnetic waves in the 4-8 GHz range to determine target properties like range, speed, and direction. It then discusses how the design combines RF transmission and reception components with digital signal processing. The document outlines the methodology, which includes calculating radar cross section (RCS) of targets at different frequencies, calculating received power based on RCS, and using power levels to determine maximum detection range. It describes applying digital beamforming and MIMO to the design for improved accuracy and coverage. The goal is to use this approach to quantify detection ranges for targets like small aircraft and UAVs using C band radar
This document describes a digital down converter (DDC) implemented on a Xilinx FPGA Virtex-5 device. The DDC allows a received intermediate frequency (IF) signal to be down converted to baseband. It uses a direct digital synthesizer to generate sine and cosine signals to mix with the input samples in a mixer, producing in-phase and quadrature signals. These pass through a low-pass filter to reject images and yield a complex baseband representation of the original signal. Implementing the filter as a multi-stage FIR filter approach optimizes the DDC with respect to hardware complexity, speed and power dissipation compared to a single-stage FIR filter. The DDC is controlled by commands received over
Performance analysis of adaptive beamforming at receiver side by using lms an...Ijrdt Journal
The Least Mean Squares (LMS) algorithm is an important member of the family of stochastic gradient algorithms. A significant feature of the LMS algorithm is its simplicity. The recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm recursively finds the filter coefficients for minimizing linear least squares cost function. Smart antenna generally refers to any antenna array. Beamforming is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception. This spatial selectivity is achieved by using adaptive or fixed receive/transmit beam patterns. The improvement compared with an omnidirectional reception/transmission is known as the receive/transmit gain (or loss). In this study, fixed weight beamforming basics and maximum signal to interference ratio are given. The theoretical information of adaptive beamforming, LMS (Least Mean Square) and RLS (Recursive Mean Squares) algorithms are explained. Adaptive beamforming in recieve antenna is simulated by using LMS and RLS algorithms. Simulation results are discussed and explained.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
In recent past the influence of Radar has played a significant part in various fields. Radar sensing is one of
the prime application by which velocity and distance of a moving target can be found out. A joint RadCom
system to serve both radar sensing and wireless communication is proposed which ensures better
performance in terms of spectral efficiency, extended detection range and cost effectiveness. Such systems
demand for a common waveform which is designed in this work that perfectly matches to the system
requirements. OFDM multi carrier technique is chosen to generate a common waveform. Applicability of
multiple antenna technique for direction of arrival estimation is also considered. MIMO-OFDM technique
has gained much interest in the field of communication which improves the signal to noise ratio and lowers
the bit error rate. On the other hand the usage of MIMO reflects in the form of interference between
signals. In order to overcome this effect beamforming technique is used. In addition to theoretical
explanations we have also simulated and discussed the results for the proposed RadCom system using
MATLAB simulation tool.
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes the performance of various digital filters in an OCDMA (Optical Code Division Multiple Access) multi-user environment using 3D codes. The document describes a simulation of a 24-user OCDMA system using different parameters like BER (Bit Error Rate), Q-factor, and eye patterns with filters including Raised Cosine, Gaussian, Fabry Perot, Trapezoidal, and Lorentzian. The analysis found that the system using a Fabry Perot filter had the minimum distortion while maintaining a low BER of 6.81×e-20 for correctly decoded signals.
Abstract In this paper, the effect of Exponential/Cosine Hyperbolic/Polynomial/Kaiser window parameters Coherent Gain (CG), Incoherent Power Gain (ICG), Equivalent Noise Band Width (ENBW) and Scalloping Loss (SL) on the SNR values of MST Radar returns has been investigated. Six sets of multibeam observations of the lower atmosphere made by the Indian Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere (MST) RADAR are used for the result analysis. Prior to the Fourier Transform, the in-phase and quadrature components of the Radar echo samples are weighted with Exponential/Cosine Hyperbolic/Polynomial/Kaiser window Functions. It is observed that, with the increase in the parameter “” of Exponential and Cosine Hyperbolic Window and parameter “m” of Polynomial Window increases ENBW and SL, but decreases in CG and ICG. This observation can be used to establish in improving the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) of MST RADAR signals. From this study it is reported that, the window e parameter “=6/m=4”can be suggested for optimum results of SNR improvement in MST RADAR signals. The optimum widow parameter“/m” in turn yields optimum Exponential window parameters as “CG=0.4768, ICG=0.3495, ENBW=1.5371, SL=0.8536”, Cosine Hyperbolic window parameters as “CG=0.4769, ICG=0.3495, ENBW=1.5366, SL=0.8535”, Polynomial window parameters as “CG=0.5719, ICG=0.4799, ENBW=1.4673, SL=0.8011”, and Kaiser window parameters as “CG=0.4991, ICG=0.3660, ENBW=1.4695, SL=0.8410”.Which corresponds to optimum mail lobe width and side lobe attenuation to increase the SNR of MST Radar noisy data.. Index Terms: CG, ICG, ENBW, SL, SNR, FFT, Spectral Analysis.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
An overview of adaptive antenna technologies for wireless communication marwaeng
This document provides an overview of adaptive antenna technologies for wireless communications. It discusses how smart antenna systems can enhance performance by manipulating antenna patterns in the spatial domain to reduce interference and increase capacity. The key benefits are reduced fading, increased power efficiency, and higher capacity. The document reviews smart antenna architectures, direction of arrival estimation techniques, spatial filtering methods like beamforming, and applications such as spatial division multiple access. It also discusses challenges in implementation and opportunities for future research.
Welcome to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
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This document presents a method for suppressing sidelobes in OFDM-based cognitive radio using a modified adaptive symbol transition technique with genetic algorithm. It discusses how OFDM signals suffer from high sidelobes causing interference, and how the adaptive symbol transition method can efficiently suppress sidelobes by adding an extension to each symbol. However, the algorithm for adaptive symbol transition is complex to implement. Therefore, the document proposes using a genetic algorithm to optimize the value of the extension added in the adaptive symbol transition method. Simulation results show the proposed genetic algorithm approach reduces interference power by around 20dB compared to the normal method, improving performance for the primary user.
Amazon products reviews classification based on machine learning, deep learni...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In recent times, the trend of online shopping through e-commerce stores and websites has grown to a huge extent. Whenever a product is purchased on an e-commerce platform, people leave their reviews about the product. These reviews are very helpful for the store owners and the product’s manufacturers for the betterment of their work process as well as product quality. An automated system is proposed in this work that operates on two datasets D1 and D2 obtained from Amazon. After certain preprocessing steps, N-gram and word embedding-based features are extracted using term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF), bag of words (BoW) and global vectors (GloVe), and Word2vec, respectively. Four machine learning (ML) models support vector machines (SVM), logistic regression (RF), logistic regression (LR), multinomial Naïve Bayes (MNB), two deep learning (DL) models convolutional neural network (CNN), long-short term memory (LSTM), and standalone bidirectional encoder representations (BERT) are used to classify reviews as either positive or negative. The results obtained by the standard ML, DL models and BERT are evaluated using certain performance evaluation measures. BERT turns out to be the best-performing model in the case of D1 with an accuracy of 90% on features derived by word embedding models while the CNN provides the best accuracy of 97% upon word embedding features in the case of D2. The proposed model shows better overall performance on D2 as compared to D1.
Design, simulation, and analysis of microstrip patch antenna for wireless app...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In this study, a microstrip patch antenna that works at 3.6 GHz was built and tested to see how well it works. In this work, Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 has been used as the substrate material, with a dielectric permittivity of 2.2 and a thickness of 0.3451 mm; it serves as the base for the examined antenna. The computer simulation technology (CST) studio suite is utilized to show the recommended antenna design. The goal of this study was to get a more extensive transmission capacity, a lower voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), and a lower return loss, but the main goal was to get a higher gain, directivity, and efficiency. After simulation, the return loss, gain, directivity, bandwidth, and efficiency of the supplied antenna are found to be -17.626 dB, 9.671 dBi, 9.924 dBi, 0.2 GHz, and 97.45%, respectively. Besides, the recreation uncovered that the transfer speed side-lobe level at phi was much better than those of the earlier works, at -28.8 dB, respectively. Thus, it makes a solid contender for remote innovation and more robust communication.
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Multi-Target Classification Using Acoustic Signatures in Wireless Sensor Netw...CSCJournals
This document surveys techniques for classifying vehicles based on acoustic signals detected by wireless sensor networks. It discusses three main areas: feature extraction, classification techniques, and information fusion. For feature extraction, it describes techniques in the time, frequency and time-frequency domains like FFT, wavelet transforms, MFCC. It evaluates classifiers like ANN, SVM, HMM using features from spectrum analysis and wavelet packet transform. Finally, it discusses information fusion techniques like majority voting, Bayesian methods to improve classification performance.
Robust automotive radar interference mitigation using multiplicative-adaptive...IJECEIAES
Radar is one of the sensors that have significant attention to be implemented in an autonomous vehicle since its robustness under many possible environmental conditions such as fog, rain, and poor light. However, the implementation risks interference because of transmitting and/or receiving radar signals from/to other vehicles. This interference will increase the floor noise that can mask the target signal. This paper proposes multiplicative-adaptive filtering and Hilbert transform to mitigate the interference effect and maintain the target signal detectability. The method exploited the trade-off between the step-size and sidelobe effect on the least mean square-based adaptive filtering to improve the target detection accuracy, especially in the long-range case. The numerical analysis on the millimeter-wave frequency modulated continuous wave radar with multiple interferers concluded that the proposed method could maintain and enhance the target signal even if the target range is relatively far from the victim radar.
Implementation of Adaptive Digital Beamforming using CordicEditor IJCATR
This document summarizes an article that proposes implementing adaptive digital beamforming using the CORDIC (COordinate Rotation DIgital Computer) algorithm. It first provides background on beamforming, sonar imaging, and the CORDIC theory. It then describes the proposed work of using CORDIC-based beamforming in an underwater sonar system to detect objects and determine angles. The system would transmit beamformed data, generate beamformed data at the receiver, and then use an optimized CORDIC algorithm to eliminate interference and noise from the received data.
Investigations on real time RSSI based outdoor target tracking using kalman f...IJECEIAES
Target tracking is essential for localization and many other applications in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). Kalman filter is used to reduce measurement noise in target tracking. In this research TelosB motes are used to measure Received Signal Strength Indication (RSSI). RSSI measurement doesn‟t require any external hardware compare to other distance estimation methods such as Time of Arrival (TOA), Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) and Angle of Arrival (AoA). Distances between beacon and non-anchor nodes are estimated using the measured RSSI values. Position of the nonanchor node is estimated after finding the distance between beacon and nonanchor nodes. A new algorithm is proposed with Kalman filter for location estimation and target tracking in order to improve localization accuracy called as MoteTrack InOut system. This system is implemented in real time for indoor and outdoor tracking. Localization error reduction obtained in an outdoor environment is 75%.
Wavelet-based sensing technique in cognitive radio networkTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Cognitive radio is a smart radio that can change its transmitter parameter based on interaction with the environment in which it operates. The demand for frequency spectrum is growing due to a big data issue as many Internet of Things (IoT) devices are in the network. Based on previous research, most frequency spectrum was used, but some spectrums were not used, called spectrum hole. Energy detection is one of the spectrum sensing methods that has been frequently used since it is easy to use and does not require license users to have any prior signal understanding. But this technique is incapable of detecting at low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) levels. Therefore, the wavelet-based sensing is proposed to overcome this issue and detect spectrum holes. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the performance of wavelet-based sensing and compare it with the energy detection technique. The findings show that the percentage of detection in wavelet-based sensing is 83% higher than energy detection performance. This result indicates that the wavelet-based sensing has higher precision in detection and the interference towards primary user can be decreased.
A Novel Carrier Indexing Method for Side Lobe Suppression and Bit Error Rate ...IRJET Journal
This paper proposes a novel carrier indexing method using variable basis functions to suppress side lobes and reduce bit error rates in non-continuous OFDM (NC-OFDM) systems. Existing active interference cancellation techniques used fixed-length rectangular basis functions for cancellation carriers, which were not optimal. The proposed method groups cancellation carriers by frequency position and shapes them with variable-length waveforms to more effectively suppress NC-OFDM side lobes while reducing inter-carrier interference. Simulation results show the proposed approach achieves over 80dB side lobe reduction and negligible inter-carrier interference compared to existing techniques. The method provides reliable data transmission between primary and secondary nodes in cognitive radio networks with lower bit error rates.
Adaptive 3D ray tracing approach for indoor radio signal prediction at 3.5 GHzIJECEIAES
This paper explained an adaptive ray tracing technique in modelling indoor radio wave propagation. As compared with conventional ray tracing approach, the presented ray tracing approach offers an optimized method to trace the travelling radio signal by introducing flexibility and adaptive features in ray launching algorithm in modelling the radio wave for indoor scenarios. The simulation result was compared with measurements data for verification. By analyzing the results, the proposed adaptive technique showed a better improvement in simulation time, power level and coverage in modelling the radio wave propagation for indoor scenario and may benefit in the development of signal propagation simulators for future technologies.
Spectral estimator effects on accuracy of speed-over-ground radarIJECEIAES
Spectral estimation is a critical signal processing step in speed-over-ground (SoG) radar. It is argued that, for accurate speed estimation, spectral estimation should use low bias and variance estimator. However, there is no evaluation on spectral estimation techniques in terms of estimating mean Doppler frequency to date. In this paper, we evaluate two common spectral estimation techniques, namely periodogram based on Fourier transformation and the autoregressive (AR) based on burg algorithm. These spectral estimators are evaluated in terms of their bias and variance in estimating a mean frequency. For this purpose, the spectral estimators are evaluated with different Doppler signals that varied in mean frequency and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Results in this study indicates that the periodogram method performs well in most of the tests while the AR method did not perform as well as these but offered a slight improvement over the periodogram in terms of variance.
A Review on Identification of RADAR Range for the Target by using C BandIRJET Journal
This document discusses using C band radar to identify the range of targets. It begins by describing C band radar technology and how it uses electromagnetic waves in the 4-8 GHz range to determine target properties like range, speed, and direction. It then discusses how the design combines RF transmission and reception components with digital signal processing. The document outlines the methodology, which includes calculating radar cross section (RCS) of targets at different frequencies, calculating received power based on RCS, and using power levels to determine maximum detection range. It describes applying digital beamforming and MIMO to the design for improved accuracy and coverage. The goal is to use this approach to quantify detection ranges for targets like small aircraft and UAVs using C band radar
This document describes a digital down converter (DDC) implemented on a Xilinx FPGA Virtex-5 device. The DDC allows a received intermediate frequency (IF) signal to be down converted to baseband. It uses a direct digital synthesizer to generate sine and cosine signals to mix with the input samples in a mixer, producing in-phase and quadrature signals. These pass through a low-pass filter to reject images and yield a complex baseband representation of the original signal. Implementing the filter as a multi-stage FIR filter approach optimizes the DDC with respect to hardware complexity, speed and power dissipation compared to a single-stage FIR filter. The DDC is controlled by commands received over
Performance analysis of adaptive beamforming at receiver side by using lms an...Ijrdt Journal
The Least Mean Squares (LMS) algorithm is an important member of the family of stochastic gradient algorithms. A significant feature of the LMS algorithm is its simplicity. The recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm recursively finds the filter coefficients for minimizing linear least squares cost function. Smart antenna generally refers to any antenna array. Beamforming is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception. This spatial selectivity is achieved by using adaptive or fixed receive/transmit beam patterns. The improvement compared with an omnidirectional reception/transmission is known as the receive/transmit gain (or loss). In this study, fixed weight beamforming basics and maximum signal to interference ratio are given. The theoretical information of adaptive beamforming, LMS (Least Mean Square) and RLS (Recursive Mean Squares) algorithms are explained. Adaptive beamforming in recieve antenna is simulated by using LMS and RLS algorithms. Simulation results are discussed and explained.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
In recent past the influence of Radar has played a significant part in various fields. Radar sensing is one of
the prime application by which velocity and distance of a moving target can be found out. A joint RadCom
system to serve both radar sensing and wireless communication is proposed which ensures better
performance in terms of spectral efficiency, extended detection range and cost effectiveness. Such systems
demand for a common waveform which is designed in this work that perfectly matches to the system
requirements. OFDM multi carrier technique is chosen to generate a common waveform. Applicability of
multiple antenna technique for direction of arrival estimation is also considered. MIMO-OFDM technique
has gained much interest in the field of communication which improves the signal to noise ratio and lowers
the bit error rate. On the other hand the usage of MIMO reflects in the form of interference between
signals. In order to overcome this effect beamforming technique is used. In addition to theoretical
explanations we have also simulated and discussed the results for the proposed RadCom system using
MATLAB simulation tool.
This document summarizes a research paper that analyzes the performance of various digital filters in an OCDMA (Optical Code Division Multiple Access) multi-user environment using 3D codes. The document describes a simulation of a 24-user OCDMA system using different parameters like BER (Bit Error Rate), Q-factor, and eye patterns with filters including Raised Cosine, Gaussian, Fabry Perot, Trapezoidal, and Lorentzian. The analysis found that the system using a Fabry Perot filter had the minimum distortion while maintaining a low BER of 6.81×e-20 for correctly decoded signals.
Abstract In this paper, the effect of Exponential/Cosine Hyperbolic/Polynomial/Kaiser window parameters Coherent Gain (CG), Incoherent Power Gain (ICG), Equivalent Noise Band Width (ENBW) and Scalloping Loss (SL) on the SNR values of MST Radar returns has been investigated. Six sets of multibeam observations of the lower atmosphere made by the Indian Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere (MST) RADAR are used for the result analysis. Prior to the Fourier Transform, the in-phase and quadrature components of the Radar echo samples are weighted with Exponential/Cosine Hyperbolic/Polynomial/Kaiser window Functions. It is observed that, with the increase in the parameter “” of Exponential and Cosine Hyperbolic Window and parameter “m” of Polynomial Window increases ENBW and SL, but decreases in CG and ICG. This observation can be used to establish in improving the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) of MST RADAR signals. From this study it is reported that, the window e parameter “=6/m=4”can be suggested for optimum results of SNR improvement in MST RADAR signals. The optimum widow parameter“/m” in turn yields optimum Exponential window parameters as “CG=0.4768, ICG=0.3495, ENBW=1.5371, SL=0.8536”, Cosine Hyperbolic window parameters as “CG=0.4769, ICG=0.3495, ENBW=1.5366, SL=0.8535”, Polynomial window parameters as “CG=0.5719, ICG=0.4799, ENBW=1.4673, SL=0.8011”, and Kaiser window parameters as “CG=0.4991, ICG=0.3660, ENBW=1.4695, SL=0.8410”.Which corresponds to optimum mail lobe width and side lobe attenuation to increase the SNR of MST Radar noisy data.. Index Terms: CG, ICG, ENBW, SL, SNR, FFT, Spectral Analysis.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
An overview of adaptive antenna technologies for wireless communication marwaeng
This document provides an overview of adaptive antenna technologies for wireless communications. It discusses how smart antenna systems can enhance performance by manipulating antenna patterns in the spatial domain to reduce interference and increase capacity. The key benefits are reduced fading, increased power efficiency, and higher capacity. The document reviews smart antenna architectures, direction of arrival estimation techniques, spatial filtering methods like beamforming, and applications such as spatial division multiple access. It also discusses challenges in implementation and opportunities for future research.
Welcome to International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
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This document presents a method for suppressing sidelobes in OFDM-based cognitive radio using a modified adaptive symbol transition technique with genetic algorithm. It discusses how OFDM signals suffer from high sidelobes causing interference, and how the adaptive symbol transition method can efficiently suppress sidelobes by adding an extension to each symbol. However, the algorithm for adaptive symbol transition is complex to implement. Therefore, the document proposes using a genetic algorithm to optimize the value of the extension added in the adaptive symbol transition method. Simulation results show the proposed genetic algorithm approach reduces interference power by around 20dB compared to the normal method, improving performance for the primary user.
Similar to Clutter reduction technique based on clutter model for automatic target classification in forward scatter radar (20)
Amazon products reviews classification based on machine learning, deep learni...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In recent times, the trend of online shopping through e-commerce stores and websites has grown to a huge extent. Whenever a product is purchased on an e-commerce platform, people leave their reviews about the product. These reviews are very helpful for the store owners and the product’s manufacturers for the betterment of their work process as well as product quality. An automated system is proposed in this work that operates on two datasets D1 and D2 obtained from Amazon. After certain preprocessing steps, N-gram and word embedding-based features are extracted using term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF), bag of words (BoW) and global vectors (GloVe), and Word2vec, respectively. Four machine learning (ML) models support vector machines (SVM), logistic regression (RF), logistic regression (LR), multinomial Naïve Bayes (MNB), two deep learning (DL) models convolutional neural network (CNN), long-short term memory (LSTM), and standalone bidirectional encoder representations (BERT) are used to classify reviews as either positive or negative. The results obtained by the standard ML, DL models and BERT are evaluated using certain performance evaluation measures. BERT turns out to be the best-performing model in the case of D1 with an accuracy of 90% on features derived by word embedding models while the CNN provides the best accuracy of 97% upon word embedding features in the case of D2. The proposed model shows better overall performance on D2 as compared to D1.
Design, simulation, and analysis of microstrip patch antenna for wireless app...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In this study, a microstrip patch antenna that works at 3.6 GHz was built and tested to see how well it works. In this work, Rogers RT/Duroid 5880 has been used as the substrate material, with a dielectric permittivity of 2.2 and a thickness of 0.3451 mm; it serves as the base for the examined antenna. The computer simulation technology (CST) studio suite is utilized to show the recommended antenna design. The goal of this study was to get a more extensive transmission capacity, a lower voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), and a lower return loss, but the main goal was to get a higher gain, directivity, and efficiency. After simulation, the return loss, gain, directivity, bandwidth, and efficiency of the supplied antenna are found to be -17.626 dB, 9.671 dBi, 9.924 dBi, 0.2 GHz, and 97.45%, respectively. Besides, the recreation uncovered that the transfer speed side-lobe level at phi was much better than those of the earlier works, at -28.8 dB, respectively. Thus, it makes a solid contender for remote innovation and more robust communication.
Design and simulation an optimal enhanced PI controller for congestion avoida...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This document describes using a snake optimization algorithm to tune the gains of an enhanced proportional-integral controller for congestion avoidance in a TCP/AQM system. The controller aims to maintain a stable and desired queue size without noise or transmission problems. A linearized model of the TCP/AQM system is presented. An enhanced PI controller combining nonlinear gain and original PI gains is proposed. The snake optimization algorithm is then used to tune the parameters of the enhanced PI controller to achieve optimal system performance and response. Simulation results are discussed showing the proposed controller provides a stable and robust behavior for congestion control.
Improving the detection of intrusion in vehicular ad-hoc networks with modifi...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) are wireless-equipped vehicles that form networks along the road. The security of this network has been a major challenge. The identity-based cryptosystem (IBC) previously used to secure the networks suffers from membership authentication security features. This paper focuses on improving the detection of intruders in VANETs with a modified identity-based cryptosystem (MIBC). The MIBC is developed using a non-singular elliptic curve with Lagrange interpolation. The public key of vehicles and roadside units on the network are derived from number plates and location identification numbers, respectively. Pseudo-identities are used to mask the real identity of users to preserve their privacy. The membership authentication mechanism ensures that only valid and authenticated members of the network are allowed to join the network. The performance of the MIBC is evaluated using intrusion detection ratio (IDR) and computation time (CT) and then validated with the existing IBC. The result obtained shows that the MIBC recorded an IDR of 99.3% against 94.3% obtained for the existing identity-based cryptosystem (EIBC) for 140 unregistered vehicles attempting to intrude on the network. The MIBC shows lower CT values of 1.17 ms against 1.70 ms for EIBC. The MIBC can be used to improve the security of VANETs.
Conceptual model of internet banking adoption with perceived risk and trust f...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Understanding the primary factors of internet banking (IB) acceptance is critical for both banks and users; nevertheless, our knowledge of the role of users’ perceived risk and trust in IB adoption is limited. As a result, we develop a conceptual model by incorporating perceived risk and trust into the technology acceptance model (TAM) theory toward the IB. The proper research emphasized that the most essential component in explaining IB adoption behavior is behavioral intention to use IB adoption. TAM is helpful for figuring out how elements that affect IB adoption are connected to one another. According to previous literature on IB and the use of such technology in Iraq, one has to choose a theoretical foundation that may justify the acceptance of IB from the customer’s perspective. The conceptual model was therefore constructed using the TAM as a foundation. Furthermore, perceived risk and trust were added to the TAM dimensions as external factors. The key objective of this work was to extend the TAM to construct a conceptual model for IB adoption and to get sufficient theoretical support from the existing literature for the essential elements and their relationships in order to unearth new insights about factors responsible for IB adoption.
Efficient combined fuzzy logic and LMS algorithm for smart antennaTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The smart antennas are broadly used in wireless communication. The least mean square (LMS) algorithm is a procedure that is concerned in controlling the smart antenna pattern to accommodate specified requirements such as steering the beam toward the desired signal, in addition to placing the deep nulls in the direction of unwanted signals. The conventional LMS (C-LMS) has some drawbacks like slow convergence speed besides high steady state fluctuation error. To overcome these shortcomings, the present paper adopts an adaptive fuzzy control step size least mean square (FC-LMS) algorithm to adjust its step size. Computer simulation outcomes illustrate that the given model has fast convergence rate as well as low mean square error steady state.
Design and implementation of a LoRa-based system for warning of forest fireTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This paper presents the design and implementation of a forest fire monitoring and warning system based on long range (LoRa) technology, a novel ultra-low power consumption and long-range wireless communication technology for remote sensing applications. The proposed system includes a wireless sensor network that records environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration in the air, as well as taking infrared photos.The data collected at each sensor node will be transmitted to the gateway via LoRa wireless transmission. Data will be collected, processed, and uploaded to a cloud database at the gateway. An Android smartphone application that allows anyone to easily view the recorded data has been developed. When a fire is detected, the system will sound a siren and send a warning message to the responsible personnel, instructing them to take appropriate action. Experiments in Tram Chim Park, Vietnam, have been conducted to verify and evaluate the operation of the system.
A novel compact dual-band bandstop filter with enhanced rejection bandsTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In this paper, we present the design of a new wide dual-band bandstop filter (DBBSF) using nonuniform transmission lines. The method used to design this filter is to replace conventional uniform transmission lines with nonuniform lines governed by a truncated Fourier series. Based on how impedances are profiled in the proposed DBBSF structure, the fractional bandwidths of the two 10 dB-down rejection bands are widened to 39.72% and 52.63%, respectively, and the physical size has been reduced compared to that of the filter with the uniform transmission lines. The results of the electromagnetic (EM) simulation support the obtained analytical response and show an improved frequency behavior.
Deep learning approach to DDoS attack with imbalanced data at the application...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
A distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack is where one or more computers attack or target a server computer, by flooding internet traffic to the server. As a result, the server cannot be accessed by legitimate users. A result of this attack causes enormous losses for a company because it can reduce the level of user trust, and reduce the company’s reputation to lose customers due to downtime. One of the services at the application layer that can be accessed by users is a web-based lightweight directory access protocol (LDAP) service that can provide safe and easy services to access directory applications. We used a deep learning approach to detect DDoS attacks on the CICDDoS 2019 dataset on a complex computer network at the application layer to get fast and accurate results for dealing with unbalanced data. Based on the results obtained, it is observed that DDoS attack detection using a deep learning approach on imbalanced data performs better when implemented using synthetic minority oversampling technique (SMOTE) method for binary classes. On the other hand, the proposed deep learning approach performs better for detecting DDoS attacks in multiclass when implemented using the adaptive synthetic (ADASYN) method.
The appearance of uncertainties and disturbances often effects the characteristics of either linear or nonlinear systems. Plus, the stabilization process may be deteriorated thus incurring a catastrophic effect to the system performance. As such, this manuscript addresses the concept of matching condition for the systems that are suffering from miss-match uncertainties and exogeneous disturbances. The perturbation towards the system at hand is assumed to be known and unbounded. To reach this outcome, uncertainties and their classifications are reviewed thoroughly. The structural matching condition is proposed and tabulated in the proposition 1. Two types of mathematical expressions are presented to distinguish the system with matched uncertainty and the system with miss-matched uncertainty. Lastly, two-dimensional numerical expressions are provided to practice the proposed proposition. The outcome shows that matching condition has the ability to change the system to a design-friendly model for asymptotic stabilization.
Implementation of FinFET technology based low power 4×4 Wallace tree multipli...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Many systems, including digital signal processors, finite impulse response (FIR) filters, application-specific integrated circuits, and microprocessors, use multipliers. The demand for low power multipliers is gradually rising day by day in the current technological trend. In this study, we describe a 4×4 Wallace multiplier based on a carry select adder (CSA) that uses less power and has a better power delay product than existing multipliers. HSPICE tool at 16 nm technology is used to simulate the results. In comparison to the traditional CSA-based multiplier, which has a power consumption of 1.7 µW and power delay product (PDP) of 57.3 fJ, the results demonstrate that the Wallace multiplier design employing CSA with first zero finding logic (FZF) logic has the lowest power consumption of 1.4 µW and PDP of 27.5 fJ.
Evaluation of the weighted-overlap add model with massive MIMO in a 5G systemTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
The flaw in 5G orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) becomes apparent in high-speed situations. Because the doppler effect causes frequency shifts, the orthogonality of OFDM subcarriers is broken, lowering both their bit error rate (BER) and throughput output. As part of this research, we use a novel design that combines massive multiple input multiple output (MIMO) and weighted overlap and add (WOLA) to improve the performance of 5G systems. To determine which design is superior, throughput and BER are calculated for both the proposed design and OFDM. The results of the improved system show a massive improvement in performance ver the conventional system and significant improvements with massive MIMO, including the best throughput and BER. When compared to conventional systems, the improved system has a throughput that is around 22% higher and the best performance in terms of BER, but it still has around 25% less error than OFDM.
Reflector antenna design in different frequencies using frequency selective s...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In this study, it is aimed to obtain two different asymmetric radiation patterns obtained from antennas in the shape of the cross-section of a parabolic reflector (fan blade type antennas) and antennas with cosecant-square radiation characteristics at two different frequencies from a single antenna. For this purpose, firstly, a fan blade type antenna design will be made, and then the reflective surface of this antenna will be completed to the shape of the reflective surface of the antenna with the cosecant-square radiation characteristic with the frequency selective surface designed to provide the characteristics suitable for the purpose. The frequency selective surface designed and it provides the perfect transmission as possible at 4 GHz operating frequency, while it will act as a band-quenching filter for electromagnetic waves at 5 GHz operating frequency and will be a reflective surface. Thanks to this frequency selective surface to be used as a reflective surface in the antenna, a fan blade type radiation characteristic at 4 GHz operating frequency will be obtained, while a cosecant-square radiation characteristic at 5 GHz operating frequency will be obtained.
Reagentless iron detection in water based on unclad fiber optical sensorTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
A simple and low-cost fiber based optical sensor for iron detection is demonstrated in this paper. The sensor head consist of an unclad optical fiber with the unclad length of 1 cm and it has a straight structure. Results obtained shows a linear relationship between the output light intensity and iron concentration, illustrating the functionality of this iron optical sensor. Based on the experimental results, the sensitivity and linearity are achieved at 0.0328/ppm and 0.9824 respectively at the wavelength of 690 nm. With the same wavelength, other performance parameters are also studied. Resolution and limit of detection (LOD) are found to be 0.3049 ppm and 0.0755 ppm correspondingly. This iron sensor is advantageous in that it does not require any reagent for detection, enabling it to be simpler and cost-effective in the implementation of the iron sensing.
Impact of CuS counter electrode calcination temperature on quantum dot sensit...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
In place of the commercial Pt electrode used in quantum sensitized solar cells, the low-cost CuS cathode is created using electrophoresis. High resolution scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction were used to analyze the structure and morphology of structural cubic samples with diameters ranging from 40 nm to 200 nm. The conversion efficiency of solar cells is significantly impacted by the calcination temperatures of cathodes at 100 °C, 120 °C, 150 °C, and 180 °C under vacuum. The fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO)/CuS cathode electrode reached a maximum efficiency of 3.89% when it was calcined at 120 °C. Compared to other temperature combinations, CuS nanoparticles crystallize at 120 °C, which lowers resistance while increasing electron lifetime.
In place of the commercial Pt electrode used in quantum sensitized solar cells, the low-cost CuS cathode is created using electrophoresis. High resolution scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction were used to analyze the structure and morphology of structural cubic samples with diameters ranging from 40 nm to 200 nm. The conversion efficiency of solar cells is significantly impacted by the calcination temperatures of cathodes at 100 °C, 120 °C, 150 °C, and 180 °C under vacuum. The fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO)/CuS cathode electrode reached a maximum efficiency of 3.89% when it was calcined at 120 °C. Compared to other temperature combinations, CuS nanoparticles crystallize at 120 °C, which lowers resistance while increasing electron lifetime.
A progressive learning for structural tolerance online sequential extreme lea...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This article discusses the progressive learning for structural tolerance online sequential extreme learning machine (PSTOS-ELM). PSTOS-ELM can save robust accuracy while updating the new data and the new class data on the online training situation. The robustness accuracy arises from using the householder block exact QR decomposition recursive least squares (HBQRD-RLS) of the PSTOS-ELM. This method is suitable for applications that have data streaming and often have new class data. Our experiment compares the PSTOS-ELM accuracy and accuracy robustness while data is updating with the batch-extreme learning machine (ELM) and structural tolerance online sequential extreme learning machine (STOS-ELM) that both must retrain the data in a new class data case. The experimental results show that PSTOS-ELM has accuracy and robustness comparable to ELM and STOS-ELM while also can update new class data immediately.
Electroencephalography-based brain-computer interface using neural networksTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
This study aimed to develop a brain-computer interface that can control an electric wheelchair using electroencephalography (EEG) signals. First, we used the Mind Wave Mobile 2 device to capture raw EEG signals from the surface of the scalp. The signals were transformed into the frequency domain using fast Fourier transform (FFT) and filtered to monitor changes in attention and relaxation. Next, we performed time and frequency domain analyses to identify features for five eye gestures: opened, closed, blink per second, double blink, and lookup. The base state was the opened-eyes gesture, and we compared the features of the remaining four action gestures to the base state to identify potential gestures. We then built a multilayer neural network to classify these features into five signals that control the wheelchair’s movement. Finally, we designed an experimental wheelchair system to test the effectiveness of the proposed approach. The results demonstrate that the EEG classification was highly accurate and computationally efficient. Moreover, the average performance of the brain-controlled wheelchair system was over 75% across different individuals, which suggests the feasibility of this approach.
Adaptive segmentation algorithm based on level set model in medical imagingTELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
For image segmentation, level set models are frequently employed. It offer best solution to overcome the main limitations of deformable parametric models. However, the challenge when applying those models in medical images stills deal with removing blurs in image edges which directly affects the edge indicator function, leads to not adaptively segmenting images and causes a wrong analysis of pathologies wich prevents to conclude a correct diagnosis. To overcome such issues, an effective process is suggested by simultaneously modelling and solving systems’ two-dimensional partial differential equations (PDE). The first PDE equation allows restoration using Euler’s equation similar to an anisotropic smoothing based on a regularized Perona and Malik filter that eliminates noise while preserving edge information in accordance with detected contours in the second equation that segments the image based on the first equation solutions. This approach allows developing a new algorithm which overcome the studied model drawbacks. Results of the proposed method give clear segments that can be applied to any application. Experiments on many medical images in particular blurry images with high information losses, demonstrate that the developed approach produces superior segmentation results in terms of quantity and quality compared to other models already presented in previeous works.
Automatic channel selection using shuffled frog leaping algorithm for EEG bas...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Drug addiction is a complex neurobiological disorder that necessitates comprehensive treatment of both the body and mind. It is categorized as a brain disorder due to its impact on the brain. Various methods such as electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI), and magnetoencephalography (MEG) can capture brain activities and structures. EEG signals provide valuable insights into neurological disorders, including drug addiction. Accurate classification of drug addiction from EEG signals relies on appropriate features and channel selection. Choosing the right EEG channels is essential to reduce computational costs and mitigate the risk of overfitting associated with using all available channels. To address the challenge of optimal channel selection in addiction detection from EEG signals, this work employs the shuffled frog leaping algorithm (SFLA). SFLA facilitates the selection of appropriate channels, leading to improved accuracy. Wavelet features extracted from the selected input channel signals are then analyzed using various machine learning classifiers to detect addiction. Experimental results indicate that after selecting features from the appropriate channels, classification accuracy significantly increased across all classifiers. Particularly, the multi-layer perceptron (MLP) classifier combined with SFLA demonstrated a remarkable accuracy improvement of 15.78% while reducing time complexity.
ResNet-n/DR: Automated diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy using a residual neu...TELKOMNIKA JOURNAL
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a progressive eye disease associated with diabetes, resulting in blindness or blurred vision. The risk of vision loss was dramatically decreased with early diagnosis and treatment. Doctors diagnose DR by examining the fundus retinal images to develop lesions associated with the disease. However, this diagnosis is a tedious and challenging task due to growing undiagnosed and untreated DR cases and the variability of retinal changes across disease stages. Manually analyzing the images has become an expensive and time-consuming task, not to mention that training new specialists takes time and requires daily practice. Our work investigates deep learning methods, particularly convolutional neural network (CNN), for DR diagnosis in the disease’s five stages. A pre-trained residual neural network (ResNet-34) was trained and tested for DR. Then, we develop computationally efficient and scalable methods after modifying a ResNet-34 with three additional residual units as a novel ResNet-n/DR. The Asia Pacific Tele-Ophthalmology Society (APTOS) 2019 dataset was used to evaluate the performance of models after applying multiple pre-processing steps to eliminate image noise and improve color contrast, thereby increasing efficiency. Our findings achieved state-of-the-art results compared to previous studies that used the same dataset. It had 90.7% sensitivity, 93.5% accuracy, 98.2% specificity, 89.5% precision, and 90.1% F1 score.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELijaia
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
Gas agency management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
The project entitled "Gas Agency" is done to make the manual process easier by making it a computerized system for billing and maintaining stock. The Gas Agencies get the order request through phone calls or by personal from their customers and deliver the gas cylinders to their address based on their demand and previous delivery date. This process is made computerized and the customer's name, address and stock details are stored in a database. Based on this the billing for a customer is made simple and easier, since a customer order for gas can be accepted only after completing a certain period from the previous delivery. This can be calculated and billed easily through this. There are two types of delivery like domestic purpose use delivery and commercial purpose use delivery. The bill rate and capacity differs for both. This can be easily maintained and charged accordingly.
Digital Twins Computer Networking Paper Presentation.pptxaryanpankaj78
A Digital Twin in computer networking is a virtual representation of a physical network, used to simulate, analyze, and optimize network performance and reliability. It leverages real-time data to enhance network management, predict issues, and improve decision-making processes.
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Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
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Clutter reduction technique based on clutter model for automatic target classification in forward scatter radar
1. TELKOMNIKA Telecommunication Computing Electronics and Control
Vol. 20, No. 5, October 2022, pp. 955~962
ISSN: 1693-6930, DOI: 10.12928/TELKOMNIKA.v20i5.24090 955
Journal homepage: http://telkomnika.uad.ac.id
Clutter reduction technique based on clutter model for
automatic target classification in forward scatter radar
Nur Emileen Abd Rashid1
, Nor Ayu Zalina Zakaria2
, Zuhani Ismail Khan1
,
Siti Amalina Enche Ab Rahim2
, Nur Luqman Saleh3
1
Microwave Research Institute, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
2
School of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Wireless and photonic network (WiPNET), Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received Aug 24, 2021
Revised Aug 09, 2022
Accepted Aug 20, 2022
Classification becomes one of the important elements in the forward scatter
radar (FSR) micro-sensors network. This classification performance is
dependent on the target’s profile behaviour and the network’s surrounding;
and one of the factors that cause the reduction of classification probability is
the presence of ground clutter. As the volume of clutter increases, their
masking effect becomes greater and may result in more significant errors in
target classification. Hence, to reduce misclassification in the FSR sensor
network, a new clutter reduction technique based on the ground clutter
model is proposed. Simulated ground clutter is modeled based on the
estimated signal to clutter ratio (SCR) of the received signal. The clutter
effect is diminished by eliminating simulated like-clutter from the receiving
signals. The result shows improvement in the classification accuracy,
especially for the minimum value of the SCR and this new technique uses
only one database which will shorten the processing time and reduce the
overall database’s size.
Keywords:
Clutter reduction technique
Forward scatter radar
Radar clutter
Target classification
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Nur Emileen Abd Rashid
Microwave Research Institute, Universiti Teknologi MARA
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Email: emileen98@uitm.edu.my
1. INTRODUCTION
The performance of forward scatter radar (FSR) for detecting and classifying ground targets (human
and vehicles) has been a subject of investigation in recent years [1]-[12]. When a target crosses the radar
baseline, the radio wave is partially obstructed and disturbed, resulting in a Doppler signature at the receiver.
This signal can be used to detect targets, estimate parameters, track them, and perhaps perform automatic
target classification (ATC).
The FSR micro-sensors system is capable of correctly detecting and classifying ground targets,
particularly under ideal or controlled settings [4]-[8]. Numerous algorithms for pattern recognition have been
developed, including the K-nearest neighbour (KNN) and neural networks (NN) classifiers. In [6]
demonstrated that by combining the output of principal component analysis (PCA) with the input of a KNN,
the FSR classification performance above 90% accuracy even at low frequency. Following that, [10], [12]
discussed how to improve classification performance using NN. The network’s inputs are the Z-score
parameters such as mean and standard deviation. While in [11], the time domain signal is analysed using the
wavelet transformation approach for the goal of identification and classification.
The aforementioned techniques provide a strong indication of the classification system’s
performance. Nonetheless, the classification system’s performance is influenced by the target’s profile
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956
behaviour, which includes factors such as speed, crossing angles, crossing points, baseline length, and sensor
placements, as well as the presence or absence of clutter [13], multiple targets [14] and other factors. This
article will only discuss the effect of clutter on the FSR system and how it may be used to improve
classification performance.
Clutter is an undesired signal from the environment that originates either internally or externally.
Ground clutter may be caused by vegetation, precipitation such as rain, snow, or hail, as well as interference
and multipath caused by buildings, the ground, and the sea. The FSR micro-sensors network distributes
sensors on the ground with a baseline length of hundreds of metres and also makes use of omnidirectional
antennas at extremely low elevations. The existence of swinging foliage and wind-blown branches nearby
sensors could be considered volume-distributed scatterers whenever the sensors are surrounded by
vegetation. Due to the non-directional nature of the antennas and the lack of range resolution, clutter
accumulated from a bigger volume.
The impact of clutter or noise on the FSR classification systems have been studied previously [15], [16].
Numerous signal-to-clutter ratios (SCR) have been simulated from 0 dB to 30 dB where few possible sources
of error were taken into accounts such as erroneously estimate the speed of the target and target spectrum’s
shape deformation. Changes in the classification performance can be perceived as SCR level is decreased;
which could cause false classification. It has shown almost no effect on the classification accuracy (except
for the lowest SCR) due to speed estimation error, which exhibits the robustness of the speed estimation
algorithm towards clutter. However, when it comes to the spectrum’s shape deformation error, the effect can be
detected even when the clutter power is small. Based on this analysis, it can be concluded that the main source
of error which can degrade ATC performance is due to the target’s spectrum shape deformation. By taking into
account both sources of error at the same time, it was discovered that the classification performance declines
dramatically for SCR below 20 dB, particularly at 64 MHz, when the classification accuracy plummeted from
80% to almost 20%. Consequently, the clutter compensation technique has been introduced to eliminate this
effect. Different database for a different level of clutter has been implemented. This new technique demonstrates
some enhancements where the classification accuracy increases by 20% for SCR = 0 dB. However, this
technique introduces a large size of the database which contributes towards longer processing time and a
lower percentage of accuracy (less than 50%) for SCR below 15 dB.
Hence, in this paper, a new technique is proposed which provides a promising improvement in the
system performance while considering a more realistic solution by implementing the clutter reduction
technique (CRT) based on the ground FSR clutter model. By using this technique, only one database which
consists of original target signatures is used. The paper starts with describing FSR configuration and ATC,
followed by a discussion on the ground FSR clutter model. Then, the improvement of the ATC system is
presented and discussed including the integration of the ground FSR clutter model with clutter reduction
technique. The final section summarizes the outline of future work in the FSR network research.
2. RESEARCH METHOD
2.1. Measurement setup and signal processing
On an empty concrete field with a baseline distance of 50 m, an outdoor experiment was conducted
to gather target signals in a clutter-free environment (assumed to have a low vegetation clutter level).
Four continuous wave carrier frequencies are simultaneously transmitted in the very high frequency (VHF)
(60 MHz – 150 MHz) and ultra high frequency (UHF) (400 MHz) bands. This experiment incorporated 200
signals from four different vehicle types: vehicle 1 (4.3 m × 1.4 m, hatchback), vehicle 2 (4.4 m × 1.4 m,
hatchback), and vehicle 3 (4.7 m × 1.9 m, sport utility vehicles (SUV)). In this research, the system’s ability
will be evaluated to distinguish between similar vehicles, particularly when certain characteristics are present
especially when specific applications are applied for example road statistic or automatic tolling system.
The outdoor measurement is conducted in the manner depicted in Figure 1. The testing scenario
begins when a target moves with a velocity described by projections 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦, and crosses the baseline at
the position (0, 𝑦𝑐) with a motion direction provided by angle. As the target approaches the baseline, the
range between the transmitter-target (𝑅𝑇) and target-receiver (𝑅𝑅) fluctuates with time, resulting in a phase
(Doppler) shift in the received signal. The received signal can be presented as:
𝑆𝑟(𝑡) = 𝐴(𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛[ 𝜓(𝑡)] (1)
The target signature, 𝐴(𝑡) varies with target radar cross section (RCS), which is entirely specified by
the target geometrical cross-section (silhouette), propagation loss, 𝐿𝑇(𝑡), 𝐿𝑅(𝑡) along the transmitter-target and
target-receiver paths. Other parameters involved in target detection are the transmit power, 𝑃𝑡 and the antenna
gains, 𝐺𝑇 and 𝐺𝑅 where it remains constant. The envelope of the received signal is written as:
3. TELKOMNIKA Telecommun Comput El Control
Clutter reduction technique based on clutter model for … (Nur Emileen Abd Rashid)
957
𝐴(𝑡) = √𝑃𝑇𝐺𝑇𝐺𝑅
4𝜋𝜎(𝑡)
𝜆2 𝐿𝑇(𝑡)𝐿𝑅(𝑡) (2)
By utilising signal processing techniques, it is possible to extract important information for
classification, such as the target’s speed and feature. When a target crosses the transmitter-receiver baseline,
the sensors can relay the pre-detection signal to headquarters over a wireless network. The received signal
will be processed further in the ATC algorithm block, where it will contain information on the target’s
silhouette and speed.
The signal that has been received passes through a process called the fourier transform (FT), which
converts it into the frequency domain. In this domain, the spectrum displays the Doppler components that are
present in the signal. Technically speaking, the speed of the target has an effect on the spectrum since the
major lobe of the spectrum’s bandwidth depends on the speed 𝑣, as well as the length of the target 𝑙, and the
equation for this is:
∆𝑓 =
𝑣
𝑙
(3)
As a result, pre-processing of the spectrum is required before it can be used as a feature vector in the
classification system. The target is then classified using a feature vector. The spectral feature vector obtained
at the speed normalisation block’s output has a high degree of dimension and the features are highly linked.
As a result, principal component analysis (PCA) is utilised to reduce the dimensionality of the data. PCA’s
output is then used for classification, either as training or testing data.
In general, a classification system’s standard approach is divided into two stages: training and
testing. During the training stage, a model for each vehicle is constructed using the training data set (this is
done using the power spectrum density (PSD) values of the entire feature vector), and during the testing
stage, a PCA-based feature vector is extracted from an unknown received vehicle signal. However, due to the
scarcity of data in this research, all recorded signals were employed alternately in classification trials rather
than dividing the database into training and testing sections. To make it feasible, a leave-one-out approach
was adopted, in which only one vehicle signal was used for testing at a time, while the remaining signals
were used for training.
After that, the Euclidean distance between this feature vector and all feature vectors associated with
trained models is determined. The test data is sorted into the most prevalent class among its K-nearest
neighbours. If the allocated group and the test data’s actual group match, the classification is termed
successful.
Figure 1. The outdoor measurement topology
2.2. Errors due to the presence of clutters in FSR system
A time-domain simulated non-stationary clutter signal is added to the received vehicle signature at
different SCRs (from 0 dB to 30 dB, in 5 dB steps) in order to introduce the effect of clutter into the FSR system
and ensure continuous improvement. Low SCR values are used in this research to simulate the worst-case
scenario, particularly in the presence of natural disasters, where the clutter signal is greater than the target’s
Doppler. The SCR is defined as the (4).
𝑆𝐶𝑅 = 10 log(
𝑃𝑠
𝑃𝑐
) (4)
Where 𝑃𝑠 and 𝑃𝑐 are the total power of the signal and total power of the clutter, respectively.
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The clutter received signal, 𝑆𝑐(𝑡) is a randomly generated clutter received signal which is generated
by employing the clutter simulation model described in [17]-[19]. The signal is then bypassing a white
Gaussian noise through a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency that varies depending on the frequency
being used; this generates simulated clutter which is similar to the measured clutter spectrum. The simulated
cluttered received signal, 𝑆𝑐𝑠(𝑡) is given by (5).
𝑆𝑐𝑠(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑟(𝑡) + 𝑆𝑐1(𝑡) (5)
Where 𝑆𝑟(𝑡) is the received signal from target detection in section 2.1, (1).
As mentioned earlier, the presence of clutter in the target’s signal introduces two possible sources of
error in the ATC system: error due to speed estimation and error due to signature deformation. The speed
estimation error is the inaccuracy caused by the speed estimation algorithm estimating the speed incorrectly.
In the real world, a cluttered received signal is used to determine the target’s speed and as an input to the
classification process. As previously stated, the bandwidth of the spectrum’s main lobe 𝛥𝑓 is dependent on
the speed 𝑣 and the length of the target l; consequently, when the speed normalisation method is applied, the
spectrum may not be appropriately rescaled due to the erroneous ratio between the estimated and reference
speeds. Clutter level diverges with the surroundings. As the clutter level varies, the amplitude of the signal
fluctuates and the shape of the signal distorts which introduces signature deformation error. As the SCR level
lowers, the PCA components for each type of target become more spread out, resulting in increased overlap across
the various targets. This leads to a decrease in classification performance. The reader is prompted at [18], [20]
for more technical information on the subject matters.
2.3. CRT based on ground fsr clutter model
Any classification system’s performance rapidly declines as the discrepancy between training and
test conditions increases. Numerous efforts have been made to correct for the effect of noise in a variety of
domains of pattern recognition, including automatic voice recognition. Numerous methods for minimizing
the influence of noise have been proposed, including filtering prior to classification [20], [21], model-based
noise compensation [22], [23], noise-resistant feature extraction [24], and numerical simulation [25].
This article proposed a novel technique for compensating for clutter that is based on the FSR ground
clutter model. After receiving the cluttered received signal, it is necessary to acquire an estimate of the noisy
conditions. The ratio of signal to clutter energy, SCR, is determined using (4). As illustrated in Figure 2,
the energy of the clutter is then evaluated using signal samples taken before and after the target signal is
identified.
Another set of random clutter is simulated using the clutter modelling parameters [17], [19].
The clutter power level 𝑃𝑠𝑐2
is modified in accordance with the computed SCR and signal power of the
received clutter signal acquired in the preceding step. The simulated clutter signal 𝑆𝑐2(𝑡) is then subtracted
from the cluttered received signal, where the subtracted clutter signal 𝑆𝑠𝑐(𝑡) is defined as:
𝑆𝑠𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑆𝑐𝑠(𝑡) − 𝑆𝑐2(𝑡) (6)
𝑆𝑠𝑐(𝑡) is then run through a bandpass filter to remove any leftover noise and smooth the signal
before continuing with the classification procedure. The denoised signal, 𝑆𝐷, is the result of this procedure.
Figure 2 illustrates the time-domain signals for the original, cluttered, and denoised signals.
Figure 2. Target signals: original, with 0 dB clutter and after denoising process
5. TELKOMNIKA Telecommun Comput El Control
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Simultaneously, the target’s speed is measured and the denoised data is converted to the power
spectrum. Prior to further processing, the feature that contains enough information to discriminate between
distinct classes and is as noise-resistant as possible is chosen. The frequency range of the spectrum is
determined using knowledge about the signal’s and clutter’s qualities. It is well established that clutter is
concentrated in the low frequency region of the spectrum between 0.5 Hz and 1 Hz of the Doppler band, but
the target signature may occupy a broad Doppler range.
Additionally, to the preceding approach, there is no requirement to assess the complete spectrum of the
target for ATC purposes. This is because the difference between different sorts of targets is visible only at the
power spectrum’s highest point, which is within 20 dB of its maximum value of 0 dB; roughly 0.5 Hz − 7 Hz
(depends on the carrier frequency). As a result of this information, the extremely low and very high frequency
bands of the spectrum are omitted from the subsequent stages of feature extraction. As a result, the
classification system receives as input only the highlighted portion of the signal spectrum.
3. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Four different vehicle signals at 3 different frequencies are utilised to determine the efficacy of the
clutter reduction strategy based on the clutter model. Previously, the clutter-reduction technique is based on
several SCR databases is applied. In this study, a single database with SCR = 30 dB (original measured
signal) is used, but other parameters such as the number of k for KNN and the number of PCAs (𝑛𝑃𝐶𝐴) stay
constant (𝑘 = 3 and 𝑛𝑃𝐶𝐴 = 3).
Plots of data from various SCR levels are made against this database. PCA plots for SCR = 0 dB and
SCR = 30 dB are shown in Figure 3(a) and Figure 3(b). The figures demonstrate that, with the exception of a
few outliers, the positions of both SCRs data are highly correlated. This discrepancy could be explained by
residual clutter in the signal, particularly at SCR = 0 dB.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. PCA plots for a different level of SCRs after clutter reduction technique at frequency 151 MHz when
(a) SCR 0 dB and (b) SCR 30 dB, (notation: vehicle 1 ( ), vehicle 2 (◊), vehicle 3 (O), and vehicle 4 (+))
Table 1(a), Table 1(b), and Table 1(c) compare the percentage of correctly classified instances for
four different types of vehicles at three different frequencies and with varying SCR levels. The tabulated
statistics demonstrate the classifications’ exceptional accuracy, particularly for vehicle 4, where 100%
classification was achieved at 151 MHz. This is clearly related to vehicle 4’s physical shape, which is larger
and has more defined edges (rectangular shape) than other cars. Apart from that, for SCR values more than
20 dB, the results indicate a high degree of classification accuracy, except for vehicle 1 at 64 MHz and
vehicle 3 at 434 MHz. This is because the design and dimensions of both vehicles are close to those of
vehicle 2, and hence both were incorrectly classed as vehicle 2. While 434 MHz should theoretically provide
a larger radar cross-section and more frequency information about the target signal, and 64 MHz should
provide lesser propagation loss and clutter, what is fascinating about this data is that 151 MHz performs the
best of these frequencies. This could be because 151 MHz has less propagation loss/clutter than 434 MHz
and more frequency information than 64 MHz. Thus, 151 MHz is the optimal frequency because it
compromises betweem 64 MHz and 434 MHz.
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Table 1. Vehicle classification confusion matrices at (a) 64 MHz, (b) 151 MHz, and (c) 434 MHz
Vehicle classification confusion matrices SCR Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2 Vehicle 3 Vehicle 4
(a) 64 MHz 0 55 98 69 84
5 75 98 86 84
10 80 98 86 96
15 83 98 88 96
20 83 98 88 96
25 83 98 90 96
30 83 98 90 96
(b) 151 MHz 0 60 82 63 68
5 85 90 63 88
10 83 92 82 92
15 88 92 84 96
20 93 92 88 96
25 93 92 88 96
30 93 92 88 96
(c) 434 MHz 0 73 96 90 92
5 88 98 92 98
10 88 98 94 100
15 93 98 94 100
20 93 98 94 100
25 93 98 94 100
30 93 98 94 100
Figure 4 depicts the average percentage of classification accuracy using automatic target
classification-clutter compensation (ATC-CC), with ATC-CC and CRT at different frequencies. As can be seen
from the graph, classification performance improves as the SCR increases. Interestingly, the clutter reduction
strategy significantly improves the classification accuracy of 64 MHz, particularly for SCR = 0 dB − 5 dB,
where accuracy increases by more than 50% and continues to improve as SCR grows. As the graph indicates,
the same performance is observed at 151 MHz and 434 MHz. However, for SCR values more than 20 dB at
151 MHz, when the clutter impact is negligible, the result indicated that improved performance can be
observed without using CRT. This is due to the fact that the database was not corrupted by simulated clutter.
Additionally, as compared to other frequencies, 151 MHz strikes a balance between clutter and data gathered
from the target signature. Overall, these results indicate that an increase in classification accuracy of at least
30% is possible for signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) less than 10 dB at all frequencies.
Additionally, the CRT based on the FSR ground clutter model outperforms the clutter compensation
(ATC-CC) model. As demonstrated in the graph, with SCR = 0 dB, a greater than 30% improvement in
accuracy can be observed at all frequencies for CRTs with a percentage of accuracy greater than 68%. CRT
performance improves as the number of SCR grows, reaching 90% accuracy for SCR greater than 15 dB.
Interestingly, both approaches operate comparably well at 151 MHz, as the SCR is greater than 20 dB.
However, at other frequencies, the FSR ground clutter model CRT outperforms ATC-CC. Overall, our results
demonstrate that CRT significantly improves classification of ground vehicles, even those with similar
shapes and dimensions and operating at varying frequencies, without requiring a large database.
Figure 4. Comparison of classification accuracy before and after the use of ATC-CC, as well as between
ATC-CC and CRT
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4. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a novel technique for decluttering based on the clutter model. The results
demonstrate the technique’s efficacy in a cluttered FSR environment. Even when the power clutter is
identical to the strength of the vehicle’s signal with SCR equal to 0, the minimum classification accuracy is
around 70%. Clutter reduction techniques based on the FSR clutter model can help reduce overall processing
time and database size. Additionally, regardless of the amount of clutter in the signal, the system can be
automatically adjusted to the present condition, which minimises the system’s complexity indirectly. For future
work, other clutter reduction approaches or classification strategies can be investigated to increase the ATC
system’s performance when there is a high level of clutter in the surrounding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is fully supported by UiTM grant, 600-RMC/MYRA 5/3/LESTARI (009/2020). The
authors would like to thank Research Management Institute (RMI) and Universiti Teknologi MARA for all
the supports.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Nur Emileen Abd Rashid is currently a Senior Lecturer at University Technology
MARA. She obtained the Bachelor of Electrical Engineering (Telecommunication Engineering)
from the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2001 and subsequently her M.Sc. in Computer,
Communication and Human Centered Engineering from the University of Birmingham, UK in
2002. She pursued her studies and received her PhD in 2011 from the same university. She has
contributed much of her expertise in areas related Radar Technology, Telecommunication signal
processing and clutter modelling. Dr. Nur Emileen is an active member of IET, IEEE and
MyRAN. She can be contacted at email: emileen98@uitm.edu.my.
Nor Ayu Zalina Zakaria is currently a Senior Lecturer in School of Electrical
Engineering, College of Engineering, University Teknologi MARA, Malaysia and has almost 18
years working experience in an engineering education. She obtained her PhD degree in Radar
Technology from University of Birmingham, United Kingdom in 2017. She received her BEng
(Hons) in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering from University Malaysia Sarawak and
Master in Mobile and Satellite Communication Engineering from University of Surrey, United
Kingdom in 2000 and 2003 respectively. Her areas of interest mainly in radar technology
particularly, radar detection and related work in clutter analysis for forward scatter radar. She can
be contacted at email: norayu713@uitm.edu.my.
Zuhani Ismail Khan is an Electrical and Electronic Engineer, graduated from
University of Bradford, UK in 1998. After joining UiTM in the year 2000, she pursued her MSc in
Computer and Information Engineering at International Islamic University Malaysia and
completed it in 2005. She then completed her PhD in Electrical Engineering at Universiti
Teknologi MARA, UiTM in 2015 where she was involved in designing RF filters. Her research
background concentrates on Microwave and RF devices for high frequency system. On October
2019 she was appointed as the head of research in microwave research institute (MRI) and
currently she holds the post of Deputy Director of the institute. She can be contacted at email:
zuhai629@uitm.edu.my.
Siti Amalina Enche Ab Rahim received the Diplôme d’Ingénieur in electronics and
communications engineering from Ecole National Superieur d’Electronique et de Radioelectricite
de Grenoble (ENSERG), Grenoble, France in 2008 and received her D.Eng in electrical and
electronics engineering from Kyushu University, Japan in 2017. In 2009, she joined Telekom
Research & Development Sdn. Bhd (TMRND), Cyberjaya, Malaysia as a researcher, before
joining Universiti Teknologi Mara, (UiTM), Shah Alam, Malaysia as a lecturer in 2017. Her
current research interests include the design of RF passive components and RF CMOS integrated
circuits. She can be contacted at email: amalinaabr@uitm.edu.my.
Nur Luqman Saleh is currently a research associate at Department of Computer and
Communication System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia. He
received his Bachelor Degree in Electronic Engineering, Majoring in Microwave and
Communications in 2012 from the Multimedia University (MMU), Cyberjaya Malaysia. In 2014,
the author received his Master Degree of Engineering Management from Universiti Putra Malaysia
(UPM), Serdang, Malaysia. He completed his Ph.D. program in Communications and Network
Engineering at Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang, Malaysia in 2020. His research interest
related to human echolocator, radar applications, signal processing and data analytic. Prior
pursuing his post-graduate study, he was served as application support engineer at
telecommunications company. He can be contacted at email: nurluqmansaleh@gmail.com.