This document discusses research design and methodology. It describes three major types of research design: historical research, descriptive research, and experimental research. Historical research involves collecting and analyzing past data to establish facts. Descriptive research describes present conditions. Experimental research establishes cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating variables. The document also discusses sources of data, sampling techniques, research instruments, and constructing questionnaires. It provides examples of how to state the research design, sources of data/procedures, and sampling plan in a study.

1. CHAPTER III
THE RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY

2. •Research Design
•Sources of Data
•Data Gathering Procedure
•Sampling Plan
•Instrumentation
•Statistical Tools

3. 3 MAJOR RESEARCH
DESIGN
* Historical Research
* Descriptive Research
* Experimental Research

4. Historical research
-describes what occurred in the
past and makes a critical inquiry into
into the truth of what occurred.
-the purpose of this research is to
collect, verify, and synthesize
evidence from the past to establish
facts that defend or refute your
hypothesis.

5. 4 MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN
HISTORICAL DATA
• Choosing and defining the
problem
• Collecting the data
•Critically analysing the data
•Writing the research report

6. SOURCES OF HISTORICAL DATA
•Written sources
•Orally transmitted materials
•Artistic production
•Tape recordings
•Relics and remains

7. CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF
HISTORICAL DATA
1. External Criticism—used to
determine the authenticity or
genuineness of a
historical document.

8. 2. Internal Criticism—is the
process of determining the
true meaning and value of
statements contained in a
document.

9. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH—
a method or procedure
involving the control or
manipulation of conditions for the
purpose of studying the relative
effects of various treatments
applied to members of a
sample, or of the same treatment
applied to members of different
samples.(Good)

10. Consists of manipulating an
experimental variable under
highly controlled conditions to
determine how and why a
particular events occurs.
(Manuel and Medel)

11. Uses the scientific method to
establish the cause-effect
relationship among a group of
variables that make up the
study.

12. A true experiment is often
thought of as a laboratory study,
but this is not always the case; a
laboratory setting has nothing to
do with it. A true experiment is
any study where an effort is made
to identify and impose control
over all other variables except
one.

13. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH—
describe what is. It involves
the description, recording,
analysis, and interpretation
of the present nature,
composition or processes
of phenomena. (Manuel
and Medel)

14. • It is a fact-finding with adequate
interpretation. (Aquino)
• Describes and interprets what is. It is
concerned with conditions of
relationships that exist; practices that
prevail; processes that are going on;
effects that are being felt, or trends
that are developing. (Best)

15. • The purpose of this design is to describe
the status of an identified variable such
as events, people or subjects as they
exist. It usually makes some type of
comparison contrasts and correlation and
sometimes, in carefully planned and
orchestrated descriptive researches,
cause-effect relationships may be
established to some extent.

16. Techniques under Descriptive Method of
Research
1. Survey (Normative survey)—are
procedure in quantitative research in
which you administer a survey
questionnaire to a small group of
people (called the sample) to identify
trends in attitudes, opinions,
behaviours, or characteristics of a
large group of people ( called the
population).

17. • This approach attempts to
establish norms or standards
based on a wide class of survey
data. The survey data may be
demographic data or they may
include also data on “average
perception” of a set of
respondents.

18. 2. Correlational Research studies—a
study that shows the relationship
between two or more variables.
--the elements of this design
include identification of the
variables of interest, the group of
subjects or respondents where the
variables will be applied, and the
estimation procedure to
determine the extent of
relationship.

19. In correlation studies, you may make use of
the results of the normative surveys.
Ex. If it is desired to determine the extent of
the relationship between managerial
effectiveness and the variables age,
educational attainment, and mental ability,
then you can start by using a correlational
technique among the principals of the public
and private schools in the Philippines.

20. 3. Descriptive Evaluative
Studies—the purposes of this
study is to judge the “goodness
of criterion measure”.
Longitudinal studies establish the
changes in that criterion measure
over a long period of time.

21. •If one were to study the
changes in the IQ levels of
children 9-10 years over a five-
year period, the researcher must
see to it that the same group of
children is tested for IQ over the
five-year period.

22. • Cross-sectional studies are designed
to evaluate changes over time by
comparing at the same point in
time, different people representing
different stages in the development.

23. Ex.
To establish changes in IQ for
children 9-10 years old, one may
simultaneously test, children 9-
10, 11-12, 13-14, 15-16, 17-18,
years old to see changes in
criterion measure.

24. 4. Assessment/Evaluation Studies—
attempt to determine the effectiveness
or efficiency of certain practices or
policies when applied to a group of
respondents. It imply measurement of
certain key indicators without attaching
any judgment to them.

25. 5. Descriptive Comparative Studies—
establish significant differences
between two or more groups of
subjects on the basis of a criterion
measure.
Ex. It may be desired to compare the
managerial effectiveness of three
groups of managers A, B, and C. A
study may employ a descriptive
design which combines two or more
designs mentioned.

26. This type of research usually
involves group comparisons. The
groups in the study make up the
values of the independent
variable.

27. Ex.
Gender (male vs. female), preschool attendance
vs. no preschool attendance, or children with a
working mother vs. children without working
mother. In comparative research, the independent
variable is not under the researcher’s control; that
is the researcher cannot randomly assign the
participants to a gender classification or
socioeconomic class, but has to take the values of
the independent variable as they come. The
dependent variable in a study is the outcome
variable.

28. 6. Case Study—is a complete,
detailed, and in-depth study and
analysis of an individual,
institution, group or community.
Used to gain deeper insight on a
phenomenon, validate earlier
findings or gather more deep-
seated data.

29. Ex.
a case studies of drug-rehabilitated
teenagers, transgenders, gay
marriages, success stories…

30. 7. Content analysis—a research technique
deals with documentary materials that
are already existing and available. It is a
research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description
of the manifest content of
communication.

31. • A research design calls for “a
detailed and systematic examination
of the contents of a particular body
of materials for the purpose of
identifying patterns, themes or
biases (Leedy and Ormod 2001). It
identifies specific characteristics of
the content of human
communication.

32. Ex. Can be an examination of word
choice and use of words in the State
of the nation Addresses of Philippine
presidents, or speeches in political
conventions.

33. Activity 1:
compare and contrast
the three types of
research design using
Venn diagram.

34. Have a quiz

35. SURVEY CASE STUDY
The group surveyed is
usually large
It usually involves one
person, family, small
group or small
community.
The number of aspects
or variables in the life of
of the group surveyed
is limited.
Usually all aspects or
variables in the life
cycle of the case under
study are included.

36. Representativeness is
important and given
emphasis.
Representativeness is
not important.
Cause-effect
relationships are not
given emphasis . Aim
of a study may only
be to determine
status.
Finding the causes of
a certain phenomena
is always a part of a
case study.

37. Curiosity, interest, or just
to determine norm or
status may initiate survey.
Abnormalities or
undesirable traits or
conditions usually initiate
a case study.
Only conditions or practices
present during the survey
are considered except in
comparative studies when
present conditions are
compared with conditions in
the past.
Data about the case from
birth or origin or even of the
future are considered.

38. Types of survey
1. Total population survey—the entire population
is involved the study.
2. Sample survey—only a sample or portion of the
population is involved in the survey.
3. School survey—used to gather data for and to
assess educational achievement and
educational itself.
4. Public Opinion survey—used to measure the
reactions of people towards certain issues or
persons.

39. 5. Social survey—the investigator researches in
the attitudes and behaviours of different groups
of people.
6. Poll survey—the respondents are asked if they
are voting for a certain candidate in an election.
7. Market Survey—aimed at finding out what kind
of people purchase which products, and how
packaging, advertising, and displaying affect
buying, prices…

40. 8. Evaluation Survey—the researcher looks
back to see what has been
accomplished and with a critical eye,
evaluates results whether they are
satisfactory or not, with the end in view of
making improvements.
9. Short-term survey—data are collected
over a period of weeks, months, or even
years but the period should be less than
five years.

41. 10. Long-term or Longitudinal Survey—any
survey conducted for more than five years.
11. Job analysis Survey—provides information
on the general duties and responsibilities of
workers.
12. Community survey—provides information
on the various aspects of the community.

42. Example of stating a Research Design
This study used the descriptive-correlational
research. The descriptive research enabled the
researcher to describe the personal attribute and
professional profile of the respondents, and to interpret
and analyse the level of teaching competence of
intermediate elementary school teachers in Mercedes
District as perceived by school heads/principals and
students. Correlational research is utilized to depict the
relationship between the school heads/ principals and
students’ perception on the level of teaching
competence of intermediate elementary school
teachers in Mercedes District.

43. HAVE A QUIZ

44. COLLECTION OF DATA

45. Data—are a collection of numbers,
quantities, facts or records used as
bases for drawing conclusions or
making inferences.

46. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
ACCORDING TO SOURCE

47. 1. PRIMARY DATA
those that are gathered from
primary sources.
a. Individual persons
b. Organized groups or
organizations
c. Established practices

48. d. Documents in their original
forms.
e. Living organisms
f. Man-made material things
g. Natural object and
phenomena

49. 2. Secondary Data
Those gathered from
secondary sources.
a. Books
b. Articles
c. Unpublished materials
d. Monographs, manuscripts, etc.

50. CATEGORIES OF DATA
GATHERED FROM THE
RESPONDENTS

51. 1. Facts—These are recollections,
observations, and perceptions of
respondents about themselves and
of other people.
2. Attitudes and feelings—These are
the respondent’s ideas and thoughts
about the research topic, and his
personal feelings about the worth of
the item being investigated.

52. 3. Judgements—these include the
respondent’s ideas or opinion about,
or his actual behaviour, in a given
situation. This is what the
respondent’s think a thing or a
situation should be or what is.
4. Results of tests and experiments

53. Example of Stating Sources
of Data and Data Gathering
Procedure

54. Sources of Data
The main respondents of this study
were the intermediate elementary school
teachers and school heads/principals. Their
responses and answers on the
questionnaire and assessments forms
constitute the primary sources of data.
Secondary sources of data include books,
journals, theses, dissertations, and
electronic online sources.

55. Data Gathering Procedure
The data needed for this study are the personal
attributes and professional profile of the intermediate
school teachers, the assessment of the training needs
in teaching competence of the teachers are perceived
by the school heads/principals and intermediate
teachers. In order to get the information needed,
questionnaires were distributed to the two groups of
respondents. Proper communication asking permission
was sent to the persons concerned. In the
administration of the questionnaires to the group of
intermediate teachers, the researcher sought the help
of the school heads/principals.

56. Sampling
* Measuring a small portion
of something and then
making a general
statement about the whole
thing. (Bradfield and
Moredock)

57. TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING—the
sample is selected by means of
some systematic way in which
every element of the population
has a chance of being included in
the sample.

58. 2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
--The sample is not a
proportion of the population
and there is no system in
selecting the sample.

59. TYPES OF PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1. Pure Random—everyone in
the population has an equal
chance of being selected to be
included in the sample. This is
also called lottery or raffle type
of sampling.

60. 2. Systematic—every nth in a list
may be selected to be included
in a sample. This is used when
the subjects or respondents in
the study are arrayed or
arranged in some systematic or
logical manner.

61. 3. Stratified random—the
process of selecting randomly,
samples from the different strata
of the population used in the
study. This is used when the
population has class
stratifications or groupings.

62. 4. Purposive—determining the
target population, those to be
involved in the study. The
respondents are chosen on the
basis of their knowledge of the
information desired.

63. 5. Cluster or Multistage—is
used when the population is
so big or the geographical area
of the research is so large.

64. TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1. Accidental—there is no
system of selection but only
those whom the researcher
meets by chance are included
in the sample.

65. 2. Quota—specified numbers of
certain types are included in the
sample. It may be used only
when any of the more desirable
types of sampling will not do.

66. 3. Convenience—the process of
picking out in the most
convenient and fastest way to
immediately get their reactions
to a certain issue. This types of
sampling is certainly biased and
not representative.

67. Ex. Of stating sampling plan
Sampling Plan
The population of this study consisted of two groups; the
intermediate elementary school teachers and the school
heads/principals.
The researcher included ten school heads/principals from the ten
elementary schools which is fifty percent of the total elementary
schools in Mercedes District.
The second group includes the Intermediate school teachers from
ten different schools. It should be noted that the schools considered
by the researcher have only one class for each grade, i.e. they have
one Grade IV class, one Grade V class and one Grade VI class, except
for Mercedes Central Elementary School. Total enumeration sampling
is used in determining the size of the sample.

68. RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS OR
TOOLS

69. 1. Mechanical Devices.
These include almost all tools
(microscopes, telescopes,
thermometers, rulers, monitors)
used in physical science. In social
science and nursing, mechanical
devices include tape recorders,
cameras, films and video tapes.

70. 2. Clerical Tools—these are used
when the researcher studies people
and gathers data on the feelings,
emotions, attitudes, and judgments
of the subjects.

71. a. The questionnaire method
b. The interview method
c. The empirical observation
method
d. The registration method
e. The testing method
f. The experimental method
g. The library method

72. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT
1. The instrument must be valid and
reliable.
2. It must be based upon the conceptual
framework or what the researcher wants
to find out.
3. It must gather data suitable for and
relevant to the research topic.

73. 4. It must gather data that would
test the hypotheses or answer the
questions under study.
5. It should be free from all kinds of
bias.
6. It must contain only questions or
items that are unequivocal.

74. 7. It must contain clear and definite
directions to accomplish it.
8. If the instrument is a mechanical
device, It must be of the best or
latest model.
9. It must be accompanied by a
good cover letter.

75. QUESTIONNAIRE
• A list of planned written questions
related to a particular topic intended
for submission to a number of persons
for reply, commonly used in normative
survey studies and in the measurement
of attitudes and opinions. (Good)

76. CONSTRUCTION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Doing library search
2. Talking to knowledgeable people
3. Mastering the guidelines
4. Writing the questionnaire
5. Editing the questionnaire
6. Rewriting the questionnaire
7. Pretesting the questionnaire
8. Writing the questionnaire in its final form

77. GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION
OF QUESTIONS FOR A
QUESTIONNAIRE

78. 1. Make all directions clear and
unequivocal
Ex. Poor direction
Answer the following questions.
Better
Choose the items or options that
would best answer the questions
and write a check mark on the
space before each option. You may
have one more than choice.

79. 2. Use correct grammar
Ex of poor grammar:
Please accomplish the questionnaire as
soon as possible return it.
Better:
Please accomplish the questionnaire
and return it as soon as possible.

80. 3. Make all questions unequivocal.
Example of equivocal and vague
questions:
Are you employed or not?
Are you a graduate?

81. Better:
Are you employed?
Are you a high school
graduate?

82. 4. Avoid asking biased questions.
Ex. Of biased question:
Why do you use Colgate
toothpaste?
Better:
Which brand of toothpaste do you
use?

83. 5. Objectify the responses.
Ex: Why do you use Palmolive soap?
______It is fragrant.
______It makes my skin smoother
______It is cheap
______It is available all the time.
______It lasts long

84. 6. Relate all questions to the topic
under study.
7. Create categories or classes for
approximate answers.

85. Ex. Qualitative
How efficient is your teacher?
___Very efficient
___Efficient
___Fairly efficient
___Inefficient
___Very Inefficient

86. EX. Of Quantitative
How many sticks of cigarettes do you
consume a day?
___0-4
___5-9
___10-14
___15-19
___20-more

87. 8. Group the questions in logical
sequence.
9. Create sufficient number of
response categories.
10. Word carefully or avoid
questions that deal with
confidential or embarrassing
information.

88. 11. Explain and illustrate difficult
questions.
12. State all questions affirmatively.
13. Make as many questions as
would supply adequate
information for the study.

89. 14. Add a catch-all word or phrase to
options of multiple response
questions.
Example: Why did you stop your studies?
__I am too poor, I cannot afford.
__I married early.
__I lost interest.
__My family moved to a place too far
from school.
__Others, please specify. ___________

90. 15. Place all spaces for replies at
one side only.
16. Make the respondents
anonymous, if necessary

91. TYPES OF QUESTIONS ASKED
IN A SURVEY
QUESTIONNAIRE

92. A. According to form
1. Free-answer type—also called
the open form, open-ended,
subjective, unrestricted essay
and unguided response type.
The respondent answers the
question in his own words and in
his own way.

93. Ex.
What are the advantages of
using internet in your study?

94. 2. Guided response type—
also called the closed form
or restricted type. The
respondent is guided in
making his reply.

95. 2 kinds of Guided Response
Type
a. Recall Type—the replies
are recalled

96. Ex.
Please supply the information asked
for.
Sex_____________ Year level_____
Age ___________ Course _______

97. b. Recognition type—the possible
responses are given and the respondent
selects his/her answer.
3 types of Recognition type
(1) Dichotomous—there are only two
options and one is selected.
Ex:
Are you married? Yes ___No _____

98. (2) Multiple choices—only one answer is
chosen from those given as options.
Ex: What is your highest educational
attainment?
Please put a check mark before your reply.
_____ Elementary graduate
_____ High School graduate
_____ College graduate

99. (3) Multiple responses—two or more options
may be chosen.
Ex: What are the reasons you married early?
___ I want to get away from the problems of
my family.
___ It’s my parents will/choice
___ My mother/sister had married earlier also.
___I want to have a child earlier.
___ I got pregnant, so I have to be married.
___ Others, please specify _________________.

100. B. According to the kind of Data asked
for
1. Descriptive (Verbal) data
What kind of house do you live in?
__ Concrete
__ Semi-concrete
__ Bamboo
__ Others, specify ________________

101. 2. Quantified (Numerical)data
How old are you? ____
What is your average
monthly income? ______

102. 3. Intensify of feeling, emotion or
attitude
Do you agree to have an
automated election?
___ Strongly agree
___ Agree
___ Fairly agree
___ Disagree
___ Strongly disagree

103. 4. Degree of judgement
How serious is the problem
(drug addiction)?
___ Very serious
___ Serious
___ Fairly serious
___ Not serious
___ Not a problem

104. How adequate are the facilities?
____ Very adequate
____ Adequate
____ Fairly adequate
____ Inadequate
____ Very inadequate

105. 5. Understanding
Explain what automated
machine is.
6. Reasoning
Why do you prefer automated
machine to manual election?

106. INTERVIEW

107. • A purposeful face to face relationship
between two persons, one of whom
called the interviewer who asks
questions to gather information and
the other called the interviewee or
respondent who supplies the
information asked for.

108. TYPES/CLASSES OF
INTERVIEW

109. 1. STANDARDIZED INTERVIEW
-the interviewer is not allowed to
change the specific wordings of the
questions in the interview
schedule. He/She cannot adapt
questions for specific situations or
pursue statements in order to add
something to the data. It is also
called formal interview.

110. 2. NONSTANDARDIZED INTERVIEW
- the interviewer has complete
freedom to develop each
interview in the most appropriate
manner for each situation. He/She
may revise, add to, or subtract
from, the interview schedule that
which he/she thinks best for the
situation. It is also called informal
interview.

111. 3. SEMISTANDARDIZED INTERVIEW
- the interviewer is required to
ask a number of specific major
questions and beyond this,
he/she is free to probe as
he/she chooses.

112. 4. FOCUSED INTERVIEW
-also called depth interview. It is similar to
the non standardized interview in which no
required questions should be asked by the
interviewer. The researcher asks a series of
questions based on his previous
understanding and insight of the situation.
In counselling, this is called directive
counselling or directive questioning—to
probe into the motives, experiences and
problems of the counselee.

113. 5. NONDIRECTIVE INTERVIEW
- the interviewee or subject is
allowed and is even encouraged to
express his/her feelings without fear or
disapproval. The subject can express
his/her feelings or views on certain
topics even without waiting to be
questioned or even without pressure
from the interviewer.

114. THE INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT
1. The Interview Schedule—it is the same
as questionnaire. The procedures of
preparing and validating an interview
schedule are the same as those of a
questionnaire. The difference between the
two is that in interview, the question is read
to the respondent and his/her reply is
written by the interviewer.

115. 2. The Interview Guide –it does not
go into details but it only provides
ideas and allows the interviewer to
freely pursue relevant topics in dept.
The items provide for the flexibility
in the manner, order, and language
of questioning.

116. INTERVIEW GUIDE
Name (optional) _________ Date ______
Address ______________________________
Educational qualifications (of faculty)
Facilities
Supervisory assistance
Proposed solutions to problem
Implications to the teaching of Science

117. Steps in the Interview
1. Planning step
a. Selection of the populace and
the locale
b. Selection of the respondents by
any sampling method
c. Selection of the type of interview
d. Preparation of the instrument

118. 2. Selecting the place for interview
3. Establishing rapport
4. Carrying out the interview
5. Recording the interview
6. Closing the interview

119. Observation
-preparing data through the
senses. It is the most direct way and
the most widely used in studying
behaviour. The sense of sight is the
most important and the most used
among the senses.

120. Test
-a specific type of measuring instrument
whose general characteristics is that, it
forces response from a pupil and the
responses are considered to be
indicative of the pupil’s skills,
knowledge, attitude, etc. Some
examples are true-false tests, essay
examinations, attitudes scales, etc.

121. Registration
-a process of listing down items of
the same kind in some systematic
manner for record purposes

122. Example of Stating
Instrumentation

123. Instrumentation
To gather necessary data, the researcher
prepared questionnaires which were answered
by the three groups of respondents. Two types
of questionnaire are utilized: one was intended
for the intermediate elementary school
teachers which asked for their personal profile,
educational qualification, teaching experience,
membership in organization, in

124. Service trainings, seminars and workshops
attended; the second questionnaire was
answered by the groups of school
heads/principals and intermediate teachers.
The researcher adopted the instrument
devised by Deang’ but there were
modifications made to fit the purpose of
the study.

125. The instrument is a five-point Likert Scale, in which the
school heads/principals and intermediate teachers gave
their ratings on the training needs in teaching
competence of the intermediate elementary school
teachers in terms of their mastery of the subject matter,
use of teaching strategies, communication skills, use of
equipment and instructional facilities, classroom
management, evaluation of students’ performance, and
social competence. The rating scale asked the raters to
use a range of 1 to 5 and the results were interpreted as
follows:

126. Scale Range Adjectival Description
5 4.50-5.49 Least Need for Training
4 3.50-4.49 Little Need for Training
3 2.50-3.49 Moderate Need for Training
2 1.50-2.49 Great Need for Training
1 0-1.49 Very Great Need for
Training

127. Have a Test

128. STATISTICS

129. Is the systematic
collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation
of quantitative data

130. Guidelines in the Selection
and Application of
Statistical Procedures

131. 1. Data should be organized
using any or all of the
following depending upon
what is desired to be
known or what is to be
computed:

132. •Talligram (Tabulation table)
•Ordered arrangement of scores
•Score distribution
•Class (grouped) frequency
distribution
•scattergram

133. Example of Tabulation table

134. Example of score distribution

135. Example of Frequency Distribution

136. Example of Scattergram

137. 2. When certain proportion of
the population based on certain
variables such as age, height,
income, etc. are desired to be
known, frequency counts with
their frequency percents may be
used.

139. 3. When the typical, normal, or
average is desired to be known,
the measures of central
tendency such as the median,
the mean or the mode may be
computed and used.

140. 4. When the variables being studied are
abstract or continuous such that they
cannot be counted individually such
as adequacy, efficiency, excellence,
extent, seriousness (of a problem), and
the like, the weighted mean may be
computed and used if the average is
desired to be known.

141. 5. When the variability of the
population is desired to be
known, the measures of
variability such as the range,
quartile deviation, average
deviation or the standard
deviation may be computed
and used.

142. 6. When the relative placements of
scores or positions are desired to
be known, ranking, quartile or
percentile rank may be computed
and used. These measures indicate
the relative position of scores in an
ordered arrangement of the scores.

143. Example of Stating Statistical Tools
Statistical Tools
the data that were gathered are
summarized, translated, and analysed
using the following statistical
techniques:

144. Frequency Count and
Percentage Technique was
employed to quantity and
describe the demographic profile
and characteristics of the
intermediate elementary school
teachers.

145. Weighted mean was computed
to evaluate and determine the level
of teaching competence of the
intermediate elementary school
teachers as perceived by the school
heads/principals and the students.

146. Spearman Rho is a method of
calculating the relationship of two
variables. This was used to determine
the significance relationship between
the school heads/principals and
students’ perception on the teaching
competence of the intermediate
elementary school teachers.