1) Direct current circuits containing batteries, resistors, and capacitors are analyzed using techniques like Kirchhoff's rules. Kirchhoff's junction rule states the sum of currents at a junction is zero, based on charge conservation. Kirchhoff's loop rule states the sum of potential differences around a closed loop is zero, based on energy conservation.
2) Resistors can be in series or parallel. Series resistors have the same current and added potentials, yielding a higher total resistance. Parallel resistors have the same potential and varying currents, yielding a lower total resistance.
3) RC circuits contain resistors and capacitors. A charging capacitor draws current that decays exponentially with the time constant RC. A discharging capacitor supplies
Ekeeda Provides Online Video Lectures, Tutorials & Engineering Courses Available for Top-Tier Universities in India. Lectures from Highly Trained & Experienced Faculty!
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The First Year engineering course seems more like an extension of the subjects that students have learned in their 12th class. Subjects like Engineering Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics, are incorporated into the curriculum. Students will learn about some of the engineering subjects in this first year, and these subjects are similar to all the branches. Everyone will learn some basics related to the other streams in their first year. Ekeeda offers Online First Year Engineering Courses for all the Subjects as per the Syllabus.
Electricity and Electromagnetism (experimental study)Raboon Redar
You’ll understand the way to calculate and measure resistance in parallel and series circuits by knowing two of the three values of voltage, current, or resistance. In this experiment, there are 3 resistors, 1 power supply and wires you need for connecting resistors to each other, then to power supply. You can measure each resistor by an ohmmeter, voltages by voltmeter and currents by amperemeter (ammeter), while all of them can be measured by a multimeter. Use a multimeter for measuring resistance for better accuracy.
Ekeeda Provides Online Video Lectures, Tutorials & Engineering Courses Available for Top-Tier Universities in India. Lectures from Highly Trained & Experienced Faculty!
Ekeeda - First Year Enginering - Basic Electrical EngineeringEkeedaPvtLtd
The First Year engineering course seems more like an extension of the subjects that students have learned in their 12th class. Subjects like Engineering Physics, Chemistry, and Mathematics, are incorporated into the curriculum. Students will learn about some of the engineering subjects in this first year, and these subjects are similar to all the branches. Everyone will learn some basics related to the other streams in their first year. Ekeeda offers Online First Year Engineering Courses for all the Subjects as per the Syllabus.
Electricity and Electromagnetism (experimental study)Raboon Redar
You’ll understand the way to calculate and measure resistance in parallel and series circuits by knowing two of the three values of voltage, current, or resistance. In this experiment, there are 3 resistors, 1 power supply and wires you need for connecting resistors to each other, then to power supply. You can measure each resistor by an ohmmeter, voltages by voltmeter and currents by amperemeter (ammeter), while all of them can be measured by a multimeter. Use a multimeter for measuring resistance for better accuracy.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
Harnessing WebAssembly for Real-time Stateless Streaming PipelinesChristina Lin
Traditionally, dealing with real-time data pipelines has involved significant overhead, even for straightforward tasks like data transformation or masking. However, in this talk, we’ll venture into the dynamic realm of WebAssembly (WASM) and discover how it can revolutionize the creation of stateless streaming pipelines within a Kafka (Redpanda) broker. These pipelines are adept at managing low-latency, high-data-volume scenarios.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Online aptitude test management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
The purpose of on-line aptitude test system is to take online test in an efficient manner and no time wasting for checking the paper. The main objective of on-line aptitude test system is to efficiently evaluate the candidate thoroughly through a fully automated system that not only saves lot of time but also gives fast results. For students they give papers according to their convenience and time and there is no need of using extra thing like paper, pen etc. This can be used in educational institutions as well as in corporate world. Can be used anywhere any time as it is a web based application (user Location doesn’t matter). No restriction that examiner has to be present when the candidate takes the test.
Every time when lecturers/professors need to conduct examinations they have to sit down think about the questions and then create a whole new set of questions for each and every exam. In some cases the professor may want to give an open book online exam that is the student can take the exam any time anywhere, but the student might have to answer the questions in a limited time period. The professor may want to change the sequence of questions for every student. The problem that a student has is whenever a date for the exam is declared the student has to take it and there is no way he can take it at some other time. This project will create an interface for the examiner to create and store questions in a repository. It will also create an interface for the student to take examinations at his convenience and the questions and/or exams may be timed. Thereby creating an application which can be used by examiners and examinee’s simultaneously.
Examination System is very useful for Teachers/Professors. As in the teaching profession, you are responsible for writing question papers. In the conventional method, you write the question paper on paper, keep question papers separate from answers and all this information you have to keep in a locker to avoid unauthorized access. Using the Examination System you can create a question paper and everything will be written to a single exam file in encrypted format. You can set the General and Administrator password to avoid unauthorized access to your question paper. Every time you start the examination, the program shuffles all the questions and selects them randomly from the database, which reduces the chances of memorizing the questions.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
HEAP SORT ILLUSTRATED WITH HEAPIFY, BUILD HEAP FOR DYNAMIC ARRAYS.
Heap sort is a comparison-based sorting technique based on Binary Heap data structure. It is similar to the selection sort where we first find the minimum element and place the minimum element at the beginning. Repeat the same process for the remaining elements.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
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condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
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2. Circuit Analysis
Simple electric circuits may contain batteries, resistors, and capacitors in various
combinations.
For some circuits, analysis may consist of combining resistors.
In more complex complicated circuits, Kirchhoff’s Rules may be used for
analysis.
These Rules are based on conservation of energy and conservation of
electric charge for isolated systems.
Circuits may involve direct current or alternating current.
Introduction
3. Direct Current
When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is called direct
current.
Most of the circuits analyzed will be assumed to be in steady state, with
constant magnitude and direction.
Because the potential difference between the terminals of a battery is constant,
the battery produces direct current.
The battery is known as a source of emf.
Section 28.1
4. Electromotive Force
The electromotive force (emf), e, of a battery is the maximum possible voltage
that the battery can provide between its terminals.
The emf supplies energy, it does not apply a force.
The battery will normally be the source of energy in the circuit.
The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative
terminal.
We consider the wires to have no resistance.
Section 28.1
5. Internal Battery Resistance
If the internal resistance is zero, the
terminal voltage equals the emf.
In a real battery, there is internal
resistance, r.
The terminal voltage, DV = e – Ir
The emf is equivalent to the open-
circuit voltage.
This is the terminal voltage when
no current is in the circuit.
This is the voltage labeled on the
battery.
The actual potential difference between
the terminals of the battery depends on
the current in the circuit.
Section 28.1
6. Load Resistance
The terminal voltage also equals the voltage across the external resistance.
This external resistor is called the load resistance.
In the previous circuit, the load resistance is just the external resistor.
In general, the load resistance could be any electrical device.
These resistances represent loads on the battery since it supplies the energy to
operate the device containing the resistance.
Section 28.1
7. Power
The total power output of the battery is
P = I ΔV = I ε
This power is delivered to the external resistor (I 2 R) and to the internal resistor
(I2 r).
P = I2 R + I2 r
The battery is a supply of constant emf.
The battery does not supply a constant current since the current in the circuit
depends on the resistance connected to the battery.
The battery does not supply a constant terminal voltage.
Section 28.1
8. Resistors in Series
When two or more resistors are connected end-to-end, they are said to be in
series.
For a series combination of resistors, the currents are the same in all the
resistors because the amount of charge that passes through one resistor must
also pass through the other resistors in the same time interval.
The potential difference will divide among the resistors such that the sum of the
potential differences across the resistors is equal to the total potential difference
across the combination.
Section 28.2
9. Resistors in Series, cont
Currents are the same
I = I1 = I2
Potentials add
ΔV = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2
= I (R1+R2)
Consequence of Conservation of
Energy
The equivalent resistance has the same
effect on the circuit as the original
combination of resistors.
Section 28.2
10. Equivalent Resistance – Series
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
The equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is the
algebraic sum of the individual resistances and is always greater than any
individual resistance.
If one device in the series circuit creates an open circuit, all devices are
inoperative.
Section 28.2
11. Equivalent Resistance – Series – An Example
All three representations are equivalent.
Two resistors are replaced with their equivalent resistance.
Section 28.2
12. Some Circuit Notes
A local change in one part of a circuit may result in a global change throughout
the circuit.
For example, changing one resistor will affect the currents and voltages in all
the other resistors and the terminal voltage of the battery.
In a series circuit, there is one path for the current to take.
In a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for the current to take.
Section 28.2
13. Resistors in Parallel
The potential difference across each resistor is the same because each is
connected directly across the battery terminals.
ΔV = ΔV1 = ΔV2
A junction is a point where the current can split.
The current, I, that enters junction must be equal to the total current leaving that
junction.
I = I 1 + I 2 = (ΔV1 / R1) + (ΔV2 / R2)
The currents are generally not the same.
Consequence of conservation of electric charge
Section 28.2
14. Equivalent Resistance – Parallel, Examples
All three diagrams are equivalent.
Equivalent resistance replaces the two original resistances.
Section 28.2
15. Equivalent Resistance – Parallel
Equivalent Resistance
The inverse of the equivalent resistance
of two or more resistors connected in
parallel is the algebraic sum of the
inverses of the individual resistance.
The equivalent is always less than
the smallest resistor in the group.
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
eq
R R R R
Section 28.2
16. Resistors in Parallel, Final
In parallel, each device operates independently of the others so that if one is
switched off, the others remain on.
In parallel, all of the devices operate on the same voltage.
The current takes all the paths.
The lower resistance will have higher currents.
Even very high resistances will have some currents.
Household circuits are wired so that electrical devices are connected in parallel.
Section 28.2
17. Combinations of Resistors
The 8.0-W and 4.0-W resistors are in
series and can be replaced with their
equivalent, 12.0 W
The 6.0-W and 3.0-W resistors are in
parallel and can be replaced with their
equivalent, 2.0 W
These equivalent resistances are in
series and can be replaced with their
equivalent resistance, 14.0 W
Section 28.2
18. Gustav Kirchhoff
1824 – 1887
German physicist
Worked with Robert Bunsen
Kirchhoff and Bunsen
Invented the spectroscope and
founded the science of
spectroscopy
Discovered the elements cesium
and rubidium
Invented astronomical
spectroscopy
Section 28.3
19. Kirchhoff’s Rules
There are ways in which resistors can be connected so that the circuits formed
cannot be reduced to a single equivalent resistor.
Two rules, called Kirchhoff’s rules, can be used instead.
Section 28.3
20. Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
Junction Rule
The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero.
Currents directed into the junction are entered into the equation as +I and
those leaving as -I.
A statement of Conservation of Charge
Mathematically,
0
junction
I
Section 28.3
21. More about the Junction Rule
I1 - I2 - I3 = 0
Required by Conservation of Charge
Diagram (b) shows a mechanical
analog
Section 28.3
22. Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
Loop Rule
The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero.
A statement of Conservation of Energy
Mathematically,
closed
loop
0
V
D
Section 28.3
23. More about the Loop Rule
Traveling around the loop from a to b
In (a), the resistor is traversed in the
direction of the current, the potential
across the resistor is – IR.
In (b), the resistor is traversed in the
direction opposite of the current, the
potential across the resistor is is + IR.
Section 28.3
24. Loop Rule, final
In (c), the source of emf is traversed in
the direction of the emf (from – to +),
and the change in the potential
difference is +ε.
In (d), the source of emf is traversed in
the direction opposite of the emf (from
+ to -), and the change in the potential
difference is -ε.
Section 28.3
25. Equations from Kirchhoff’s Rules
Use the junction rule as often as needed, so long as each time you write an
equation, you include in it a current that has not been used in a previous junction
rule equation.
In general, the number of times the junction rule can be used is one fewer
than the number of junction points in the circuit.
The loop rule can be used as often as needed so long as a new circuit element
(resistor or battery) or a new current appears in each new equation.
In order to solve a particular circuit problem, the number of independent
equations you need to obtain from the two rules equals the number of unknown
currents.
Any capacitor acts as an open branch in a circuit.
The current in the branch containing the capacitor is zero under steady-state
conditions.
Section 28.3
26. Problem-Solving Strategy – Kirchhoff’s Rules
Conceptualize
Study the circuit diagram and identify all the elements.
Identify the polarity of each battery.
Imagine the directions of the currents in each battery.
Categorize
Determine if the circuit can be reduced by combining series and parallel
resistors.
If so, proceed with those techniques
If not, apply Kirchhoff’s Rules
Section 28.3
27. Problem-Solving Strategy, cont.
Analyze
Assign labels and symbols to all known and unknown quantities.
Assign directions to the currents.
The direction is arbitrary, but you must adhere to the assigned directions when
applying Kirchhoff’s rules.
Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit that provides new
relationships among the various currents.
Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed to solve for the
unknowns.
To apply the loop rule, you must choose a direction in which to travel
around the loop.
You must also correctly identify the potential difference as you cross
various elements.
Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown quantities.
Section 28.3
28. Problem-Solving Strategy, final
Finalize
Check your numerical answers for consistency.
If any current value is negative, it means you guessed the direction of that
current incorrectly.
The magnitude will still be correct.
Section 28.3
29. RC Circuits
In direct current circuits containing capacitors, the current may vary with time.
The current is still in the same direction.
An RC circuit will contain a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor.
Section 28.4
31. Charging a Capacitor
When the circuit is completed, the capacitor starts to charge.
The capacitor continues to charge until it reaches its maximum charge (Q = Cε).
Once the capacitor is fully charged, the current in the circuit is zero.
As the plates are being charged, the potential difference across the capacitor
increases.
At the instant the switch is closed, the charge on the capacitor is zero.
Once the maximum charge is reached, the current in the circuit is zero.
The potential difference across the capacitor matches that supplied by the
battery.
Section 28.4
32. Charging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit
The charge on the capacitor varies with
time.
q(t) = Ce(1 – e-t/RC)
= Q(1 – e-t/RC)
The current can be found
t is the time constant
t = RC
I( ) t RC
ε
t e
R
Section 28.4
33. Time Constant, Charging
The time constant represents the time required for the charge to increase from
zero to 63.2% of its maximum.
t has units of time
The energy stored in the charged capacitor is ½ Qe = ½ Ce2.
Section 28.4
34. Discharging a Capacitor in an RC Circuit
When a charged capacitor is placed in
the circuit, it can be discharged.
q(t) = Qe-t/RC
The charge decreases exponentially.
Section 28.4
35. Discharging Capacitor
At t = t = RC, the charge decreases to 0.368 Qmax
In other words, in one time constant, the capacitor loses 63.2% of its initial
charge.
The current can be found
Both charge and current decay exponentially at a rate characterized by t = RC.
I t RC
dq Q
t e
dt RC
Section 28.4
36. Household Wiring
The utility company distributes electric power to individual homes by a pair of
wires.
Each house is connected in parallel with these wires.
One wire is the “live wire” and the other wire is the neutral wire connected to
ground.
Section 28.5
37. Household Wiring, cont
The potential of the neutral wire is
taken to be zero.
Actually, the current and voltage
are alternating
The potential difference between the
live and neutral wires is about 120 V.
Section 28.5
38. Household Wiring, final
A meter is connected in series with the live wire entering the house.
This records the household’s consumption of electricity.
After the meter, the wire splits so that multiple parallel circuits can be distributed
throughout the house.
Each circuit has its own circuit breaker.
For those applications requiring 240 V, there is a third wire maintained at 120 V
below the neutral wire.
Section 28.5
39. Short Circuit
A short circuit occurs when almost zero resistance exists between two points at
different potentials.
This results in a very large current
In a household circuit, a circuit breaker will open the circuit in the case of an
accidental short circuit.
This prevents any damage
A person in contact with ground can be electrocuted by touching the live wire.
Section 28.5
40. Electrical Safety
Electric shock can result in fatal burns.
Electric shock can cause the muscles of vital organs (such as the heart) to
malfunction.
The degree of damage depends on:
The magnitude of the current
The length of time it acts
The part of the body touched by the live wire
The part of the body in which the current exists
Section 28.5
41. Effects of Various Currents
5 mA or less
Can cause a sensation of shock
Generally little or no damage
10 mA
Muscles contract
May be unable to let go of a live wire
100 mA
If passing through the body for a few seconds, can be fatal
Paralyzes the respiratory muscles and prevents breathing
Section 28.5
42. More Effects
In some cases, currents of 1 A can produce serious burns.
Sometimes these can be fatal burns
No contact with live wires is considered safe whenever the voltage is greater than
24 V.
Section 28.5
43. Ground Wire
Electrical equipment manufacturers use
electrical cords that have a third wire,
called a ground.
This safety ground normally carries no
current and is both grounded and
connected to the appliance.
If the live wire is accidentally shorted to
the casing, most of the current takes
the low-resistance path through the
appliance to the ground.
If it was not properly grounded, anyone
in contact with the appliance could be
shocked because the body produces a
low-resistance path to ground.
Section 28.5
44. Ground-Fault Interrupters (GFI)
Special power outlets
Used in hazardous areas
Designed to protect people from electrical shock
Senses currents (< 5 mA) leaking to ground
Quickly shuts off the current when above this level
Section 28.5