This document discusses structured observation as a research method. It covers the need to practice structured observation to record data consistently and quickly. It also discusses analyzing both structured and unstructured observation data through methods like frequencies, patterns, and thematic analysis. Ethical considerations for observation research are also outlined, such as informed consent, anonymity, and effects on the natural setting.
This is the lecture I delivered on the 'Becoming Social Scientist' undergraduate module at the University of Birmingham, as the part of a whole module with students. This is the first introductory lecture entitled 'Ethnography I: Introduction'. During the lecture, it was continuous, the effort to link ethnography with Social Innovation and Design Thinking applied research perspective of Ethnography in the broader social and business context of Birmingham.
This is the lecture Dr Igor Calzada delivered on Ethnography in order to tackle the issues regarding data analysis in qualitative research in addition to the writing process of ethnographic method. That was delivered as a mean to achieve social innovation projects.
Questions to Ask Across the Ethnographic LifecycleCelia Emmelhainz
This presentation highlights questions for anthropologists and other qualitative researchers to ask themselves across the research data management lifecycle, including in finding, annotating, securing, and archiving qualitative research materials.
This is the lecture I delivered on the 'Becoming Social Scientist' undergraduate module at the University of Birmingham, as the part of a whole module with students. This is the first introductory lecture entitled 'Ethnography I: Introduction'. During the lecture, it was continuous, the effort to link ethnography with Social Innovation and Design Thinking applied research perspective of Ethnography in the broader social and business context of Birmingham.
This is the lecture Dr Igor Calzada delivered on Ethnography in order to tackle the issues regarding data analysis in qualitative research in addition to the writing process of ethnographic method. That was delivered as a mean to achieve social innovation projects.
Questions to Ask Across the Ethnographic LifecycleCelia Emmelhainz
This presentation highlights questions for anthropologists and other qualitative researchers to ask themselves across the research data management lifecycle, including in finding, annotating, securing, and archiving qualitative research materials.
2. STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER
• Structured observation
• The need to practise structured observation
• Analyzing data from structured observations
• Critical incidents
• Naturalistic and participant observation
• Data analysis for less structured observations
• Natural and artificial settings for observation
• The use of technology in recording observations
• Timing and causality with observational data
• Ethical considerations
• Some cautionary comments
3. OBSERVATIONS ARE . . .
• Looking (often systematically)
• Noting systematically people, events,
behaviours, settings, artifacts, routines etc.
• Concerned with live data and situations
• Selective and theory-driven (there are no
neutral observations)
• On a continuum from highly structured to
semi-structured to unstructured
4. ROLE OF OBSERVER
• Complete participant
• Participant as observer
• Observer as participant
• Complete observer
Complete participation to complete detachment
5. CONTINUA OF OBSERVATION
Prespecified/pre-ordinate Responsive
Quantitative Qualitative
Time bound Open-ended
Short-term Long-term
Structured/systematic Unstructured/ad hoc
Participant observation Non-participant observation
Highly focused/early focused Unfocused/late focused
Descriptive Explanatory
Overt Covert
Laboratory/contrived settings Natural settings
Direct observation Indirect observation
Observing others Observing self and others
6. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• The focus of the observation(s)
• Why they are observing
• The research questions that the observational
data will address
• What to include and exclude
• How to record the observations
• Where to observe
• What to observe
• Whom to observe
• How many people, events, settings to observe
7. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• How systematic, structured, descriptive to be
• The ‘unit’ of observation (e.g. a teacher, a
student; a pair, a small group, a class)
• What resources are necessary
• Problems that might be encountered
• Additional information that may be needed to
complement the observational record
• The processing and analysis of data
8. OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .
• How the observation may be affected by the
sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance,
age, language, personality, temperament,
attitude, interpersonal behaviour, familiarity
with the situation, involvement and concern of
the observer
• Whether the observer will stand or sit, or
move around a setting
• Where to stand or sit
9. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Systematic
• Enables the researcher to generate numerical
data from the observations
• Non-participant observer
• Data entered onto a structured observation
schedule
10. STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• Observation categories are discrete: no
overlap
• Timed
• The researcher will need to practise
completing the schedule consistently and at
speed
• The researcher will need to decide what
entry/code/symbol is to be made in the
appropriate category
11. Student to Student / / / /
Student to Students
/ /
Student to Teacher
/ / /
Students to Teacher
/ / / / /
Teacher to Student
Teacher to Students
Student to Self
Task in hand
Previous task
Future task
Non-task
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
12. EVENT SAMPLING
(Each occurrence)
Boss shouts at employee / / / / /
Employee shouts at boss / / /
Employee’s colleague shouts at boss / /
Boss shouts at employee’s colleague / /
13. TWO DIFFERENT STORIES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee / / / / /
Employee shouts at boss / / /
Employee’s friend shouts at boss / /
Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee / / / / /
Employee shouts at boss / / /
Employee’s friend shouts at boss / /
Boss shouts at employee’s friend / /
14. INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
(On the instant of time)
INTERVAL RECORDING
(What has happened in the previous
time period)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss smiles at employee / / / /
Employee smiles at boss / / / /
Boss smiles at employee’s friend / / / /
Employee’s friend smiles at boss / / / /
16. • Entering data consistently and at speed
• Catching all the data
• Where to observe/stand/sit
THE NEED TO PRACTISE
STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
17. • Frequencies
• Patterns
• Unusual data
• Frequently occurring
• Aggregated data
• Quantitized and qualitized
ANALYZING DATA FROM
STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
18. • Naturalistic research often uses participant
observation
• Observations are recorded in field notes and
audio-visually
NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT
OBSERVATION
19. FIELD NOTES (1)
Types:
• Jottings; transcriptions; reports; pen
portraits;reconstructions of conversations;
descriptions of physical settings; reports of
events and behaviour; descriptions of
researcher’s activities; ongoing notes; logs
and diaries; notes on pre determined themes;‑
chronologs; discussion data
20. FIELD NOTES (2)
Timing and focus:
• Notes made in situ;
• Expanded notes that are made as soon as
possible after the initial observations;
• Journal notes to record issues, ideas,
difficulties etc. that arise during the
fieldwork;
• A developing, tentative running record of
ongoing analysis and interpretation.
21. FIELD NOTES (3)
Description
• Space: the physical setting;
• Actors: the people in the situation;
• Activities: the sets of related acts that are taking
place.
• Objects: the artifacts and physical things that are
there;
• Acts: the specific actions that participants are doing;
• Events: the sets of activities that are taking place;
• Time: the sequence of acts, activities and events;
• Goals: what people are trying to achieve;
• Feelings: what people feel and how they express
this.
22. FIELD NOTES (4)
Reflection:
• Reflections on the descriptions and analyses
that have been done;
• Reflections on the methods used in the
observations and data collection and analysis;
• Ethical issues, tensions, problems and
dilemmas;
• The reactions of the observer to what has been
observed and recorded – attitude, emotion,
analysis etc.;
• Points of clarification that have been and/or
need to be made;
• Possible lines of further inquiry.
23. DATA ANALYSIS FROM FIELD NOTES
Qualitative data analysis:
• Coding, classifying, categorizing
• Nodes and connection
• Summarizing
• Narrative accounts
• Constant comparison
• Grounded theory
• Theoretical saturation
• Thematic analysis
• Patterning
• Quantitizing (e.g. frequencies)
24. USING TECHNOLOGY IN RECORDING
OBSERVATIONS
Audio-visual recording
• Problems of reactivity
• Fixed or moving camera
• Operator present with camera/camera; no
operator present
• How many cameras?
• Location of camera(s)
• Close focus or panorama?
25. TIMING AND CAUSALITY WITH
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
• When to observe effects of an intervention?
• How many time points for observation?
• How frequent are the observations?
• The more accurately we wish to know the causal
sequences, the more frequently and closer together
must be the observational data collection points.
• The more complex is the phenomenon under
investigation, the more time points for observational
data collection may be necessary in order to
understand the causation.
• Ethnography may be more useful than numerical
studies in identifying causality.
26. ETHICS
• Informed consent
• Covert or overt
• Disturbing the natural setting
• Deception and pretence
• Impression management
• Confidentiality/anonymity/privacy/non-
traceability
• Protection of individuals
• Loyalties (and to whom)
• Ignoring dubious acts (e.g. criminal acts)
27. RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
• Selective attention of the observer
• Reactivity
• Attention deficit of observer
• Validity of constructs
• Selective data entry
• Selective memory for write-ups of observations
• Interpersonal matters and counter-transference
• Expectancy effects
• Decisions on how to record
• Number of observers
• The problem of inference
28. PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
• When, where, how and what to observe
• How much structure is necessary in the
observation (structured to unstructured)
• The duration of the observation period
• The timing of the observation period
• The context of the observation
• The opportunity to observe
• Merging subjective and objective observation
• The value of covert participant observation in
order to reduce reactivity
29. PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
• Threats to reliability and validity
• Operationalizing the observation so that what
counts as evidence is consistent,
unambiguous and valid
• Appropriate kind of structured observation and
recording
• Ethical issues
• Whether deception is justified
• Which role(s) to adopt on the continuum of
complete participant to complete observer