This document discusses parallel processing and multiprocessing. It begins by explaining how processor performance is measured and how increasing clock frequency and instructions per cycle can improve performance. It then provides a taxonomy of parallel processor architectures including SISD, SIMD, MISD, and MIMD models. The MIMD model is further classified based on tightly-coupled and loosely-coupled systems. Symmetric multiprocessors (SMPs) and issues like cache coherence are discussed for tightly-coupled MIMD systems. Hardware and software solutions to cache coherence are also summarized.
Parallel computing is a type of computation in which many calculations or the execution of processes are carried out simultaneously. Large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved at the same time. There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction-level, data, and task parallelism. Parallelism has been employed for many years, mainly in high-performance computing, but interest in it has grown lately due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. As power consumption (and consequently heat generation) by computers has become a concern in recent years, parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, mainly in the form of multi-core processors.
Parallel computing is a type of computation in which many calculations or the execution of processes are carried out simultaneously. Large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which can then be solved at the same time. There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction-level, data, and task parallelism. Parallelism has been employed for many years, mainly in high-performance computing, but interest in it has grown lately due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. As power consumption (and consequently heat generation) by computers has become a concern in recent years, parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, mainly in the form of multi-core processors.
MODULE III Parallel Processors and Memory Organization 15 Hours
Parallel Processors: Introduction to parallel processors, Concurrent access to memory and cache
coherency. Introduction to multicore architecture. Memory system design: semiconductor memory
technologies, memory organization. Memory interleaving, concept of hierarchical memory
organization, cache memory, cache size vs. block size, mapping functions, replacement
algorithms, write policies.
Case Study: Instruction sets of some common CPUs - Design of a simple hypothetical CPU- A
sequential Y86-64 design-Sun Ultra SPARC II pipeline structure
MODULE III Parallel Processors and Memory Organization 15 Hours
Parallel Processors: Introduction to parallel processors, Concurrent access to memory and cache
coherency. Introduction to multicore architecture. Memory system design: semiconductor memory
technologies, memory organization. Memory interleaving, concept of hierarchical memory
organization, cache memory, cache size vs. block size, mapping functions, replacement
algorithms, write policies.
Case Study: Instruction sets of some common CPUs - Design of a simple hypothetical CPU- A
sequential Y86-64 design-Sun Ultra SPARC II pipeline structure
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
2. Its All About Increasing Performance
• Processor performance can be measured by the
rate at which it executes instructions
MIPS rate = f * IPC (Millions of Instructions per Second)
— f is the processor clock frequency, in MHz
— IPC the is average Instructions Per Cycle
• Increase performance by
—increasing clock frequency and
—increasing instructions that complete during cycle
– May be reaching limit
+ Complexity
+ Power consumption
6. Multiple Processor Organization
• SISD - Single instruction, single data stream
• SIMD - Single instruction, multiple data stream
• MISD - Multiple instruction, single data stream
• MIMD - Multiple instruction, multiple data stream
7. SISD - Single Instruction, Single Data Stream
• Single processor
• Single instruction stream
• Data stored in single memory
• Uni-processor
Control Unit Processing Unit Memory Unit
8. SIMD - Single Instruction, Multiple Data Stream
• Single machine instruction
• Number of processing elements
• Each processing element has associated data memory
• Each instruction simultaneously executed on
different set of data by different processors
Typical Application - Vector and Array processors
9. MISD Multiple Instruction, Single Data Stream
• One sequence of data
• A set of processors
• Each processor executes different
instruction sequence
Not much practical application
10. MIMD - Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data Stream
• Set of processors
• Simultaneously execute different instruction sequences
• Different sets of data
— SMPs (Symmetric Multiprocessors)
— NUMA systems (Non-uniform Memory Access)
— Clusters (Groups of “partnering” computers)
Shared memory (SMP or NUMA) Distributed memory (Clusters)
11. MIMD - Overview
• General purpose processors
• Each can process all instructions
necessary
• Further classified by method of processor
communication & memory access
12. MIMD - Tightly Coupled
• Processors share memory
• Communicate via that shared memory
Symmetric Multiprocessor (SMP)
- Share single memory or pool
- Shared bus to access memory
- Memory access time to given area of memory is
approximately the same for each processor
Nonuniform memory access (NUMA)
- Access times to different regions of memory may differ
14. MIMD - Loosely Coupled
Clusters
• Collection of independent
uniprocessors
• Interconnected to form a cluster
• Communication via fixed path or network
connections
15. Symmetric Multiprocessors (SMP)
• A stand alone “computer” with the following
characteristics:
—Two or more similar processors of comparable
capacity
– All processors can perform the same functions (hence
symmetric)
—Processors share same memory and I/O access
– Memory access time is approximately the same for each
processor (time shared bus or multi-port memory)
—Processors are connected by a bus or other internal
connection
—System controlled by integrated operating system
– Providing interaction between processors
– Providing interaction at job, task, file and data element
levels
16. SMP Advantages
• Performance
— If some work can be done in parallel
• Availability
— Since all processors can perform the same
functions, failure of a single processor
does not halt the system
• Incremental growth
— User can enhance performance by adding
additional processors
• Scaling
— Vendors can offer range of products based
on number of processors
18. Time Shared Bus (vs Multiport memory)
• Simplest form
• Structure and interface similar to single
processor system
• Following features provided
—Addressing - distinguish modules on bus
—Arbitration - any module can be temporary master
—Time sharing - if one module has the bus, others must
wait and may have to suspend
19. Time Share Bus - Advantages
Advantages:
• Simplicity
• Flexibility
• Reliability
Disadvantages
• Performance limited by bus cycle time
• Each processor must have local cache
— Reduce number of bus accesses
• Leads to problems with cache coherence
21. Cache Coherence
• Problem - multiple copies of same data
in different caches
• Can result in an inconsistent view of
memory
—Write back policy can lead to inconsistency
—Write through can also give problems unless
caches monitor memory traffic
MESI Protocol (Modify - Exclusive - Shared - Invalid )
22. Software Solution to Cache Coherence
Compiler and operating system deal with
problem
• Overhead transferred to compile time
• Design complexity transferred from
hardware to software
— Analyze code to determine safe periods for
caching shared variables
— However, software tends to (must) make
conservative decisions
— Inefficient cache utilization
23. Hardware Solution to Cache Coherence
Cache coherence hardware protocols
• Dynamic recognition of potential
problems
• Run time solution
—More efficient use of cache
• Transparent to programmer / Compiler
Implemented with:
• Directory protocols
• Snoopy protocols
24. Directory & Snoopy Protocols
Directory Protocols
Effective in large scale systems with complex interconnection
schemes
• Collect and maintain information about copies of data in cache
— Directory stored in main memory
• Requests are checked against directory
— Appropriate transfers are performed
Creates central bottleneck
Snoopy Protocols
Suited to bus based multiprocessor
• Distribute cache coherence responsibility among cache
controllers
• Cache recognizes that a line is shared
• Updates announced to other caches
Increases bus traffic
25. Snoopy Protocols
• Write Update Protocol (Write Broadcast)
—Multiple readers and writers
—Updated word is distributed to all other processors
—Multiple readers, one writer
• Write Invalidate protocol (MESI)
—When a write is required, all other caches of the line
are invalidated
—Writing processor then has exclusive (cheap) access
until line is required by another processor
MESI Protocol - State of every line is marked as Modified,
Exclusive, Shared or Invalid
- two bits are included with each cache tag
