2. Chapter One
Outline
1. Introduction
2. Citizenship and Citizenship Issues
3. Rights and Duties in Citizenship
4. Morality and Ethics
5. The Nature of the Subject âCitizenshipâ
6. Why Civic and Ethics Matter
3. Introduction
Civics and Ethics is an emerging discipline in the field of
social science. After 1990s, the official launching of democracy
and democratization process among countries that were
hitherto ruled under dictatorial regimes across nearly half of
part of the world revived the significance of the discipline.
It has been understood and applied differently in different
countries depending on the distinct realities and challenges
that they have. Despite this truth, there have been
foundational principles and values that are treated under the
discipline.
The issue of Constitutional democracy and Human Rights has
been and continues to be the common denominator across all
countries. There is a broad agreement that democracy is an
ideal space where people know how to enjoy their rights and
carry out their duties
4. For this reason, nowadays, democracy and democratic citizenship
are becoming a priority business for many States. On one hand,
emanating from the need to deepen and extend democracy in areas
where democracy has started to function, the concern stems from the
need to build democracy in States where democracy was not their
tradition.
Besides, a countryâs peace, stability and economic prosperity are
dependent on the moral integrity and in enlightened decisive
practices of the people living in its jurisdiction.
Progressive and peaceful settings subsist in a given society as far as
that society develops the qualities of its members and generates
good citizens.
Citizens of a State should always be educated to suit the constitution
of their State. These and other demands motivate states to teach some
elements of the thoughts in civics and ethics either in the form of
family and separately organized curriculum or at least as an integral
part and hidden element of the thoughts in other disciplines
5. Different terms have been used in an attempt to capture and describe
the educational experiences that deal with the task of developing
democratic minded and morally genuine citizens.
The subject assumed different names and purposes depending on
countriesâ social, political, cultural and economic realities.
⢠Terms such as Rights Education (in South Africa)
⢠Citizenship Education (in United States of 4 Civic Education for
Higher Education America and Germany),
⢠Education for Citizenship (England)
⢠Civics & Moral education (in Singapore)
⢠Civics and Ethical Education (in Ethiopia)
⢠Social studies and moral education (Korea),
⢠Human society and itâs environment (Australia)
⢠people and society (Hungary)
6. Citizenship and Citizenship Issues
The concept of citizenship is a complex one. It does not have
a definitive explanation, but it is nevertheless a very important
category. Citizenship is a powerful political ideal. Often the
way a person is treated depends on whether he or she has the
status of a citizen or not. The term citizenship, in its modern
usage has four generic meanings:
a. Ability to exercise self-governance;
b. A legal status of a person within a sovereign political
entity-state;
c. Belongingness to any human association oneâs official
identity;
d. Fulfilling a certain standard of proper conduct- civic
commitment
7. To briefly explain the four points:
1. A citizen is a person with political rights to participate in the
process of popular self-governance (direct & indirect),
including: the right to vote, the right to hold elective &
appointive government offices, the right to serve in various
sorts of juries and generally to participate in the political
debates as a political community member.
2. Citizens are people who are legally recognized as members
of a particular sovereign political community. They therefore
possess some basic rights to be protected by that
communityâs government, whether or not those rights
include rights of political participation. In this meaning,
possessing citizenship is understood to be effectively
equivalent to possessing ânationalityâ under a particular
modern state, even if there remains some sense that âcitizensâ
are presumptively more entitled to full political rights than
mere ânationals.
8. It is grounded in the guarantee of legal and political
protections from raw coercive and abusive power. This
includes at least two important aspects:
a. Citizenship practice requires protection of âthe manyâ
and enables them to obtain control of the legitimate
means of violence, the state, in order to enforce
protections or rights against ĂŠlites who wield/exercise
public and private power;
b. Equally important, citizenship involves protecting âthe
fewâ who have little power who need shelter from the
tyranny of âthe manyâ and/or ĂŠlites.
9. 3. Citizenship refers to membership in any of the associations
organized and functions to serve political and/or non-political
purposes. In this context, citizens are those who belong to
almost any human association such as Neighborhood
community, Fitness club community, university community,
cultural community and so on.
4. Citizenship in the fourth view is used to signify not just a
mere membership in some group but fulfilling of certain
standards of proper conduct. Some people those who
contribute to the well-being of their political community,
Mosque, lunch club, or other human association, and do so
frequently and valuably, at some cost to themselves are
understood to be the âtrue citizensâ of those bodies.
10. In short, the term citizenship denotes to the legal and political
promises concluded between a person and the state (Bellamy,
2008).
The word citizen is to mean a person who is a member of a
particular country by birth or Naturalization (getting a right
of citizenship through legal process).
This is to say that a citizen refers to a person who has certain
rights and privileges, and who is also expected to render
some outstanding services or duties.
This implies the state of being the owner of certain rights
and duties.
11. Rights and Duties in Citizenship
Generally speaking, while rights are a legal or moral entitlement to
have or do something, duties belong to a commitment that one is
expected or required to do by legal or moral obligations.
Rights are the legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or
entitlements; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about
what is allowed of people or owed to people, according to some legal
system, social convention or ethical theory.
Citizenship issues primarily deal with the rights and duties of citizens
in a given state or political system. It deals with the reciprocal
relationship of state and citizens with respect to the legally defined rights
and obligations.
Citizenship rights are multi-dimensional and diverse in nature.
According to Hopfieldâs (1978) classification, rights can be divided into
four types involving: liberties, claims, powers and immunities.
T. H. Marshall (1950) identifies three categories of rights and obligations
to citizens: civil, political and socio-economic. These forms of rights do
not have the same weight and value across countries.
12. ⢠A brief summary of the different components of citizenship
rights, as it is depicted by Marshal and Hohfeld, is
presented below.
1. Civil rights: Such components of citizenship show the
obligations of the state to the promotion and protection of
an individualâs freedom or liberty rights. Such rights
primarily entail the legal rights, which are at most
procedural in nature. They, among others, include the
following: Right to Personal security: rights that protect
citizens from illegal impressment, torture, death,
invasions of privacy and aids for controlling oneâs body.
13. Right to Justice Access and Process: rights to legal
representation, free legal aid, waive legal fees, confront
witnesses, jury trial, contracts etc.
Freedom of conscience and choice which include among
others: Right to free speech, free press etc. Right to
occupational choice.
2. Political Rights: Such rights represent the degree to which
a citizen is able to participate in political (leadership) affairs.
Political rights are largely procedural rights to participate in
the exercise of political power, as a member of a body
invested with political authority or as an elector of the
members of such a body.
14. 3. Economic Rights: Such elements of citizenship represent the
commitment/obligation of the state to see and promote
citizenâs Economic & Labor rights. Economic rights: Such
rights show citizens' right to own property, chooses their
occupation, makes contracts and work. They are rights to
citizensâ economic freedom or economic liberty or their
ability to undertake economic actions.
Ownership of property may be private, collective, or
common, and the property may be of objects, land/real estate
or intellectual property.
Determining ownership in law involves determining who
has certain rights and duties over the property.
15. Labour/workersâ Rights: Labor rights or workers' rights are a
group of legal rights and claimed human rights having to do
with Labour relations between workers and their employers,
usually obtained under labor and employment law. Such
rights, though not an exclusive typology, may exist in the
forms of;
16. 4. Social Rights: such citizenship elements depict the Stateâs
commitment/ obligation to realize the social welfare and cast
eliminate of stereotypes particularly the poor, disabled,
women, children, elders and others who are in need of special
care and treatment.
Social rights support citizensâ claims to social status and
economic subsistence.
Other rights that might have come under this one including
⢠Enabling rights: consisting of health care, old age pensions,
rehabilitation and family or individual counseling
⢠Opportunity rights: consisting of various forms of education
(pre primary to tertiary) and educational counseling.
17. Redistributive and compensatory rights: involve payments for
deprivations in the form of war injury benefits, work injury
benefits, programs for the disadvantaged, low wage/income
rights, unemployment compensation rights, violation
compensation etc. In terms of distribution (both horizontally
among Citizens with each other and vertically-among citizens
and the state) citizenship rights and duties are, at least in
principle, expected to be reciprocal and shared (Bellamy,
2008).
In the case of individual state relationship, for example, citizens
are entitled to have access to education; the responsibility to
fulfil this service lies on the state. In this regard, the state claims
the right to collect taxes or revenue from citizens. One can
enjoy his/her right as far as he/she respects the rights of other
persons
18. Other things Considered as Rights
⢠Liberty in the form of right to bargain over the terms of
employment;
⢠Immunity rights like safety rights in the work place
⢠Powers in the form of right to participate in setting
standards, taking issues to adjunction or policy makers
⢠Claims such as right to certain Labour standards, job security
and social entitlement The international Labour organization
(ILO), in the declaration of the fundamental principles and
rights at work, asserted, among others, the following
universal standards.
19. ⢠Freedom of association: workers are able to join trade
unions that are independent of government and their
employer influence.
⢠The right to collective bargaining: workers may negotiate
with employers collectively, as opposed to individually the
⢠Prohibition of all forms of forced labor: includes security
from prison Labour and slavery, and prevents workers
from being forced to work under duress
⢠Elimination of the worst forms of child labor:
implementing a minimum working age and certain
working condition requirements for children
⢠Non-discrimination in employment: equal pay for equal
work
20. Morality and Ethics
According to Shaw (2015), the terms morality and ethics are often
used synonymously or interchangeably in both the lay discourse as
well as academic writings. They do not refer, however, to the same
Phenomenon. In every society, there are standards that serve as a
litmus test to distinguish persons as good/right or bad/wrong
Morality is, therefore, the status of being right or wrong, just or
unjust, good or bad or generally acceptable or not in our practices by
referring to the belief in a particular situation (Thiroux, 1998).
It sets out norms and customary rules to judge the actions, intentions
of individuals and groups in the society
Ethics, in turn, is the study of the logical status of our moral
prescriptions and judgments. It is a critical, technical and
philosophical examination to the moral issues (morality), thus named
sometimes as moral philosophy. It concerns what makes a specific
moral status correct or incorrect (Shaw, 2015).
21. Citizenship and Morality
Citizenship and Morality are separate issues of studies,
however share certain common elements. Haftamu & Yemane
(2001) identifies the following five characters shared by
Citizenship and morality.
1. Membership: Membership to a certain grouping is the very
essence of both citizenship and morality. In the absence of
the concept of membership, both lose their fundamental
meanings and status as subject matters to be studied.
In citizenship study, membership is meant that of individual
citizen to a political and legal community of the highest order
(the state) whereas in morality study it largely denotes that of
a cultural community tied up by common moral and value
bonds whether there is government or not.
22. Similarly, morality is a value arrangement that describes and
prescribes the conditions for the individual member to be
accepted as a âgoodâ element as judged and rated by the
society itself which is the biological and cultural breeding
ground of its members.
However, under both conditions, membership to a certain
grouping and community is an established common factor
shared by citizenship and morality.
Aristotle also holds it, that humanity is destined by its
exceptional nature to be a social creature with an inherent duty
to tie itself to a political company.
23. 2. Rights and Obligations; Human beings are tend to live
together in a social gathering. But this social gathering is not
anywhere a haphazard and accidental aggregation of
individuals without some kind of systematized organization
and common orientation.
There are rather certain unavoidable rules and procedures
with lists of privileges and concomitant obligations attached
to the individual person as a condition of social attachment
with the vast social surrounding.
Morality on its part is nothing but a list of values
standardizing bad and good behaviors and dispositions of
the individual by the larger mass or group. Both underscore
the fact that the individual person is accountable to two sets
of rights and obligations mostly set and protected by social
forces out of his control.
24. 3. Institutional Protection: Both citizenship and morality are
founded on institutionalized origin, development, operation,
supervision and protection within the community. An
institution here signifies a sociological establishment and
organization of people formed strictly with a degree of
executive right to exercise coercive power on the individual in
the name of the community.
The institution obtains and maintains its legitimacy to rule over
the behaviors of the individual member of the group from
majority approval and its capacity to transcend itself across
generations.
With the major differences in the authority of the institution, it
is commonly responsible to protect civic and moral sets of rights
and obligations by applying formal and informal supervisory
mechanisms over the individual.
25. The state through the government and all agencies under it
regulate and administer citizenship on day-to-day basis while
such social institutions like mosque, family, neighborhood and
others inspect morality and ethical standards more informally.
This institutional protection of citizenship and morality helps
to make individual relations and actions within the
community predictable and subject to proportional rewards
and punishments.
26. 4. Interactive Duality: Although Citizenship differs from
morality in that it is formal, official, predominantly rational,
highly authoritative and regular in its operation because it
finds its strength from the legitimacy of the government and
its formalized authority, both categories of social formulations
have a strong tendency to reinforce each other in application
which leads to some sort of interactive duality.
Despite this duality, however, both citizenship and morality
reinforce each other as the political community of citizens is at
the same time the cultural community of human beings. Most
legal rules, restrictions and controls over the behaviors of the
citizen get their origin from the moral traditions and thoughts
of the people over its individual member.
27. 5. The Relative Truth of discourse and practice: Both
citizenship and morality bear a degree of relativity with
morality tending to be even more relative due to its nature.
Both Citizenship and morality deal with value practices and
values can differ due to change in philosophy, consciousness,
social culture, etc. thus the truth and relevance in citizenship
and moral discourses and practice is context bounded.
28. The Nature of the Subject
Civics and Ethics, although the issues of citizenship and
morality are as old as social existence, treating Civics and
Ethics as independent fields of study is a recent
phenomenon.
There is a strong argument that citizenship and moral
education should be given as hidden and integrated
elements of other subjects.
Civics and ethics are thus a science, but not at all a physical
science. Thus, from the point of view of science, civics and
ethics is a systematized body of knowledge that deals with
ideal citizenship, i.e. good citizenship. Truly speaking, art is
nothing but the practical application of the knowledge
acquired by science. The main aim of education is to prepare
students for future life.
29. Civics and ethics are both science and art in the sense that it
investigates conditions and seeks to apply the results of its
investigation to the furtherance of human welfare.
In regarding to the independent functioning of the subject, no
subject can be taught in isolation. It is only for convenience of
study that we have split the knowledge in to different subjects.
Thus, an effective thought requires us coordinating the
knowledge in different subjects either in a causal or systematic
way.
Civics and Ethics as an interdisciplinary subject. Such a way
of understanding needs to keep in view the following three
important assertions. First, Civics and ethics is indebted to
other social sciences up to certain extent. Second, other social
sciences take help from civics and ethics. Third, these subjects,
though they are interdependent yet they enjoy an independent
status (Kerr, 1999; teaching politics).
30. Why Civic and Ethics Matter
There are several and complex real-life problems as well as
social aspirations that make civics and Ethics highly
imperative and hence justifiable.
The need to imbibe virtue among citizens, creating sense of
national pride and patriotism, enhancing social integration
and oneness, producing ethically responsible professionals
and public servants, etc
few reasons to justify the dealing with civics and ethics
(Halstead & Pike, 2006; Kerr, 1999) Let us see these in a fairly
extended explanation.
31. The Need to create ideal Citizenry: The survival and development
of a society is highly correlated with the quality and integrity of its
individual members as well as their groupings. It is hardly possible
to think of any social transformation and progress, at least in
principle, without having ideal citizenry practice.
But what is an ideal citizen? It might be difficult to have a short and
expressive term to define what an ideal citizen seems. But many
may agree to consider ideal citizens as the honorable ones.
Virtuous citizens, are those who possess the character traits or
behaviors which are deep-seated or ingrained in their minds, and
representing the best quality that lead to human well being.
They possess a practical wisdom that enables them to figure out
how to act well. There is a wide-ranging debate about how virtues
can be acquired. While some say virtuous persons are born, others
believe they can be made. While the first see virtue as natural talent
or gift, others consider it as a nurtured or learned and cultivated
quality.
32. For Aristotle, for example, a virtuous person is someone who
has ideal characters. These traits are derived from natural
internal tendencies, but need to be nurtured. Once established,
they will become stable. Thus, for him, a virtuous person is
someone who is kind across many situations over a lifetime
because that is their character and not because they want to
maximize utility or gain favors or simply do their duty.
Thus, the aim of civics and ethics is identifying the good
character traits, civic dispositions and commitments and
imbibing them among citizens.
Ethics means right living and good moral character. It is in
good moral character that man finds his true worth and
perfection.
33. The need to create a sense of national pride and Patriotism:
A countryâs place in its socio-economic and political
interactions is highly determined by the citizensâ sense of
ownership and belonging.
The degree of commitment and participation in affairs of their
state is highly influenced by the pride and patriotism that they
demonstrate. Citizensâ national pride and patriotism canât
happen randomly.
No country can progress effectively unless its citizens are
soaked in the spirit of patriotism or nationalism. They should
be prepared to sacrifice for their mother land. We should also
be proud of our cultural heritage and uphold values of our
society.
34. More importantly, a countryâs development can sustain and
flourish continuously if its citizens possess and exercise a true
and healthy patriotism, alternatively termed as democratic
nationalism or constitutional patriotism.
Being a democratic nationalist or constitutional patriot, citizens
are expected to strive and work hard in keeping the freedom,
integrity, sovereignty and wellbeing of their people.
They are also determined to sacrifice in mattes that need their
extraordinary contribution as well as work as ambassadors to
build the image of their country internally and externally.
In general, they live being loyal to and defending the
constitution of their country. Thus, civics and ethics education
is a systemic response to the challenges that a state may face by
nationalism.
35. The need to enhance Social integrity and National Unity:
States (the territorial ones) can be created in consequence of
some short period democratic negotiations (agreements),
some undemocratic (force based) arrangements or both.
The internal cohesion or unity of the state, i.e nation
building, however, depends on the systemic and organized
way of integrating its values thereby creating shared
identities among its citizens.
There are different factors working as barriers to social
integration or nation building. Such factors may be
attributed to the natural (physical) sociocultural realties as
well as the social Psychology or attitudes and orientations
towards each otherâŚ.
36. First, the natural or physical environment such as space, time,
climate, topography, and the like can greatly interfere with the
process of Social integration. The development of science and
technology provide a means of human control over the natural
physical environment.
The modern system of transportation and communication play
a significant role in crumbing down or overcoming the natural
or physical barriers of social integration.
It is not far off, when the whole world will become a single
unit (Science and technology Realises globalization), any
citizen of a country will then not be able to keep himself away
from the ways of other societies.
37. Second, the socio-cultural experience has also a capacity of
creating incompatibility in values, doctrines and life styles
among the communities of a state.
Third, the other and most worried challenges to social unity
and coexistence are related to the social psychological and
attitudinal discontents. Such factors represent the way
peoples understand and respond to each other or their
orientations and perceptions toward one another.
38. The challenges stated in the second and third categories are
signs of lack of a democratic, rational and scientific way of
thinking and acting. They imply lack of mutual
understanding, inclusiveness and respect among people.
As some argue, our attitudes determine our directions and
are more important than the tools we have. While the
positive attitude moves you forward, the negative attitude
pushes you behind.
A bad attitude is like a flat tire, you canât go anywhere till
you change it. As such the psychological and attitudinal
discontents are the most destructive and inflammatory
problems that affect social unity and nation building
39. The whole purpose of civics and ethics is to help students to
think scientifically, rationally, democratically and act
responsibly. Citizens need to have the understanding and
intellectual integrity to sift truth from falsehood, facts from
propaganda and also to reject the dangerous appeal of
fanaticism and prejudice.
They must develop a scientific attitude of thinking objectively
and base their conclusion on verified data. They should need
to have an open mind receptive to new ideas and not
confined within oneâs prison walls of outmoded customs,
traditions and beliefs. Such citizens are needed more than
anything to create a peaceful and well-ordered society.
40. The need to have responsible Professionals and public
servants:
The whole purpose of education is supporting the
harmonious development of the whole man including of all
his faculties or powers: his intellectual, physical and moral
faculties or powers. Now the highest of manâs powers are his
reason and will.
Hence, the primary objective of education is the moral
development of the will. Unfortunately, this moral training
that is most important in man is not given due emphasis in
the educational system of many countries from the
developing and developed world.
41. The result is the unbalanced training evident in the products
of their schools today: professionally irresponsible
graduates.
Science and technology are playing too big a role to ease the
life of society these days. This can continue positively,
however, up until its operators use and apply it on bases of
its ethical requirement.
42. The need to train citizens on Self-governance: one of the
objectives of civics and ethics is to promote the knowledge,
values and skilled participation of sovereign citizens in the art
of deliberation.
This includes the study of democracy, the rule of law, all types
of citizensâ rights, human rights, periodic fair and free
elections, the principle of democratic government, the
activities and values of democratic civil society, etc.
The citizen has the right to change government that fails to
protect individual rights. Thus, the ultimate goal of civic
education is to enable citizens to participate competently and
responsibly in the monitoring and informing of public policy,
democratic development and protection of citizensâ rights
43. ⢠Hence, the primary concern of civic education is training
of citizens in political and legal self-government. In
general, the significance of civics and ethics among others
include:
⢠To make citizens aware of the fundamental rights,
freedoms and duties.
⢠To initiate citizens to participate actively in the political
activities of the government.
⢠To produce competent and responsible citizens who
actively take part in the overall development of their
country.
⢠To develop the culture of democracy and avoid the
culture of passivity and apathy.
44. To make citizens think rationally and critically.
To make citizens feel responsible for whatever they do âŚ
etc.
45. Theories of Citizenship
Citizenship is not an eternal essence rather a cultural artifact
molded by people through time and that is why the notion of
citizenship and the meaning attached to it changes with the
change in political thoughts, ideologies, policies and
government
Citizenship in Liberal Thought
Generally, the bedrock principles of liberal theory of citizenship
are: individuals are free to form their own opinions, pursue
their own projects, and transact their own business
untrammeled by the Stateâs political agenda and coercive
power, except in so far as individual actions implicate the
interests of other members of society.
Liberal citizens are thus left to their own devices without much
guidance from the state.
46. Citizenship cannot be defined based on shared identity or a
common culture; the individual chooses his own affections,
and any identification with other individuals is rather a
product of their legal status as citizens. Equal rights bind
citizens together in a legal community of free individuals.
This does not imply the complete rejection of culture and
identity as such, but identity and culture are not a priori
foundations for citizenship.
Citizenship in Communitarian Thought
Communitarianism as an approach emphasizes the
importance of the society in articulating the good. The
communitarian (also known as the nationalist) model argues
that the identity of citizens cannot be understood outside the
territory in which they live, their culture and traditions,
arguing that the basis of its rules and procedures and legal
policy is the shared common good. The political subject,
above all, belongs to a community
47. A community to which they owe allegiance and commitment.
Thus, rather than viewing group practices as the product of
individual choices, communitarians view individuals as the
product of social practices. Moreover, communitarians often
deny that the interests of communities can be reduced to the
interests of their individual members. Privileging individual
autonomy is seen as destructive of communities.
The State must provide a policy for the common good,
according to the way of life of the community.
Communitarians examine the ways shared conceptions of the
good are formed, transmitted, justified and enforced.
48. The increasing diversity in States challenge particularly the
liberal conceptions of citizenship. The liberal view the rights
of the individual as paramount and group identities and
rights as inconsistent with and inimical to the rights of the
individual.
A number of factors have caused scholars to raise inquires
about the liberal analysis and expectations for identity of
groups in democratic States
These factors include the rise of the ethnic revitalization
movements demanding recognition of group rights as well
as individual rights; the structural exclusion of racial,
gender, ethnic, and language groups; and increasing
immigration throughout the world that make States
multinational and polytechnic.
Multicultural Citizenship
49. A. discussion on four principles of multicultural citizenship which
are presented here under.
A. Taking equality of citizenship rights as a starting point. It is
essential to ensure that all members of society are formally
included as citizens, and enjoy equal rights and equality before the
law. Just like the liberal perspective, multicultural citizenship
concerns with the universal rights of members.
B. Recognizing that Formal equality of rights does not necessarily
lead to equality of respect, resources, opportunities or welfare.
Formal equality can mask and legitimize disadvantage and
discrimination. It is necessary to consciously recognize group
difference and to understand its causes. While liberal theorists
believe that the universal rights accorded through citizenship
safeguard the cultural membership of individuals, theorists within
multicultural school of thought envisage the need for additional
rights for vulnerable minority groups, in order for such groups to
sustain themselves amidst the dominant culture(s).
50. C. Establishing mechanisms for group representation and
participation. Despite formal equality, disadvantaged groups are
often excluded from decision-making processes. It is necessary to
make arrangements to ensure the participation of people directly
affected, wherever important decisions are made.
D. Differential treatment for people with different characteristics,
needs and wants. Liberalistsâ universal conception of citizenship
within a stratified society results in the treatment of some groups
as second-class citizens because group rights are not recognized
and the principle of equal treatment is strictly applied. Treating
people equally, despite the fact that past actions have made them
unequal, can perpetuate inequality. In this view, multicultural
citizenship allows for marginalized voices to be heard. A
differentiated conception of citizenship is needed to help
marginalized groups attain civic equality and recognition in
multicultural democratic nations.
51. ⢠Society is formed of different groups which are either
dominant or oppressed (Young, 1989). This strand of
differentiated citizenship therefore concerns the
denouncing of universal rights and the provision of
special rights for oppressed groups. This suggests a
politics for difference and not one geared towards the
possibility of integration.
