In 1980, IBM was in a hurry to introduce a personal computer. When personal computers first began to emerge at the end of the 1970s, most of the major computer manufacturers considered it no more than a peculiar product for a hobbyist market. The idea that individuals would want personal computers on their desks seemed ludicrous. However, as total U.S. per- sonal computer sales reached $1 billion, IBM began to worry that the personal computer market could actually turn out to be a significant computer market in which IBM had no share.
Chapter Nine : IBM
In 1980, IBM was in a hurry to introduce a personal computer. When personal computers first began to emerge at the end of the 1970s,the idea that individuals would want personal computers on their desks seemed ludicrous.
Chapter Nine : IBM
In 1980, IBM was in a hurry to introduce a personal computer. When personal computers first began to emerge at the end of the 1970s,the idea that individuals would want personal computers on their desks seemed ludicrous.
Dissecting Apple: How Apple Became One of the Most Successful Companies In Th...The Marketing Guy
Apple is one of the most successful and most profitable companies in the world. At one point Apple even amassed a higher wealth then the American government.
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Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Dissecting Apple: How Apple Became One of the Most Successful Companies In Th...The Marketing Guy
Apple is one of the most successful and most profitable companies in the world. At one point Apple even amassed a higher wealth then the American government.
http://www.themarketingguy.net
Like us on Facebook and Follow us on Twitter for free giveaways, competitions and sweepstakes.
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http://www.youtube.com/themarketingguy1
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Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
1. Schiling Chapter Nine
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Protecting Innivation
The Digital Music Distribution Revolution
Fraunhofer and MP3
In 1991, Fraunhofer IIS of Germany developed an algorithm that
would set in motion a revolution in how music was distributed,
stored, and consumed. This format for compressed audio files was
later dubbed MPEG-1 layer 3—a.k.a. MP3. By 1995, software
programs were available that enabled consumers to convert tracks
from compact discs to MP3 files. This technology transformed how
music could be manipulated—a song was now a file that could be
kept on a hard drive, and the file was small enough to be shared
over the Internet.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Napster Takes the
Lead
In 1999, while a student at Northeastern University in Boston, Shawn
Fanning released Napster—a software program that allowed users
with Internet access to easily share MP3 files. Napster provided a
user-friendly solution to music fans wishing to share and find music
online. Napster provided a user interface with a search box that
pointed individuals to other users with the files they wished to
download. The Napster servers did not host any MP3 files; rather
they hosted a database with information on which users had which
files to share and whether they were online, and connected one
computer to another for downloading.
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iTunes Just in Time
On April 28, 2003, Apple opened its iTunes Music Store. After striking
agree- ments with the five major record labels (Sony, Universal, BMG,
Warner Music Group, and EMI), iTunes launched with an initial
catalogs of 200,000 songs for purchase at 99 cents per song.i iTunes
showed immediate signs of success, boasting 50 million downloads
within the first year, and quickly became the lead- ing distributor of
music online
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
4. Schiling Chapter Nine
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Appropriability
appropriability The degree to which a firm is able to capture the
rents from its innovation.
tacit knowledge Knowledge that cannot be readily codified or
trans- ferred in written form.
socially complex knowledge Knowledge that arises from the
interaction of multiple individuals.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
5. Schiling Chapter Nine
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PATENTS,
TRADEMARKS, AND
COPYRIGHTS
Patent A property right protecting a pro- cess, machine,
manufactured item (or design for manufactured item), or variety of
plant.
Trademark An indicator used to distin- guish the source of a good.
Copyright A property right protecting works of authorship.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
6. Schiling Chapter Nine
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Theory in Action
IBM and the Attack of the Clones
In 1980, IBM was in a hurry to introduce a personal computer. When
personal computers first began to emerge at the end of the
1970s,the idea that individuals would want personal computers on
their desks seemed ludicrous. However, as total U.S. per- sonal
computer sales reached $1 billion, IBM began to worry that the
personal computer market could actually turn out to be a significant
computer mar- ket in which IBM had no share.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
7. Schiling Chapter Nine
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Continued
IBM decided to use many off-the-shelf components from other
vendors, includ- ing Intel’s 8088 microprocessor and Microsoft’s soft-
ware. IBM was not worried about imitators because IBM’s proprietary
basic input/output system (BIOS), the computer code that linked the
computer’s hardware to its software, was protected by copyright.
IBM’s copyright turned out not to be difficult. Copyright protected
the writ- ten lines of code, but not the functions those codes
produced. Compaq was able to reverse-engineer the BIOS in a
matter of months without violating IBM’s copyright.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Advantages of
protection
Because proprietary systems offer greater rent appropriability, their
developers often have more money and incentive to invest in
technological development, promotion, and distribution. Protecting
the technology also gives the developing firm architectural control
over the technology.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Advantages of
Diffusion
First, external devel- opment efforts typically lack the coordination
of internal development. External developers may have very diverse
objectives for the technology; rather than work together toward
some unified vision of what the technology could achieve in the
future, they might work in different, possibly even conflicting,
directions.26 Much of their effort may be redundant, as different
external developers work on solving the same problems without
communicating with each other.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Continued
UNIX provides a stark example of this. UNIX was an operating
system first developed by AT&T’s Bell Laboratories in 1969. Though a
Department of Justice injunction forbade AT&T from selling software
commercially, it made the source code for the product available
through licensing arrangements. Though the software community
made several attempts to standardize the UNIX operating language,
their efforts failed. AT&T also challenged the commercialization of
several UNIX variants, but to no avail. Ulti- mately, AT&T sold the
division responsible for UNIX to Novell, and Novell handed over the
rights to the UNIX trademark to the X/Open standards-setting body.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Production Capabilities,
Marketing Capabilities, and
Capital
If the firm is unable to produce the technology at sufficient volume
or quality levels (or market the technology with sufficient intensity),
then protecting the technology so that the firm is its sole provider
may significantly hinder its adoption. Example JVC was promoting its
VHS standard for video recorders, its management knew JVC was at
a disadvantage in both manufacturing and marketing capabilities
compared to Sony (which was promoting the Beta technology). JVC
chose to vigorously pursue both licensing and OEM agreements,
lining up Hitachi, Matsushita, Mitsubishi, and Sharp to boost the
technology’s production rate.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Industry Opposition against
Sole-Source Technology
Sometimes other industry members are able to exert strong pressure against the
adoption of a technology that would give one (or a few) producer(s) undue control and
power, caus- ing a technology that is restricted to such production to be rejected or
more hotly contested than a more open technology. Sony and Philips’ Super Audio CD
(SACD) audio format. Sony and Philips had jointly created the original compact disc (CD)
format and split the royalties on every CD player sold, totaling hundreds of millions of
dollars. The rest of the world’s leading consumer electronics producers (including Hit-
achi, JVC, Matsushita, Mitsubishi, and Toshiba) and record producers (including Time
Warner and Seagram’s Universal Music group) banded together to form the Digital
Video Disk (DVD) Audio consortium. This consortium’s purpose is to promote the DVD
Audio standard that is intended to displace the CD and enable royalties to be split
among the 10 companies that control the patents.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Resources for
Internal
Development
If a firm does not have significant resources (capital, technological
expertise) to invest in the technology’s functionality, it may have
difficulty producing a technology that has an initial performance level,
and rate of improvement, that the market finds attractive.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Control over
Fragmentation
For technologies in which standardization and compatibility are
important, maintain- ing the integrity of the core product is
absolutely essential, and external development can put it at risk. As
the UNIX example illustrates, if the developing firm relinquishes all
control over the development of the technology, the technology will
have no shep- herd with the ability and authority to direct its
trajectory and ensure that a single stan- dard remains intact.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
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Incentives for
Architectural Control
Architectural control over the evolution of a technology is always
valuable; however, it becomes particularly valuable if a firm is a
significant producer of complements to the technology in question. A
firm with architectural control can typically design the technology to
be compatible with its own complements and incompatible with
those of competitors. If the technology is chosen as the dominant
design, this archi- tectural control allows the firm to ensure that it
reaps the lion’s share of the rewards in complements production.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
16. Schiling Chapter Nine
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Summary of Chapter
1. The degree to which a firm can capture the rents from its innovation
efforts is largely determined by the degree to which competitors can
quickly and easily imi- tate the innovation. Some innovations are
inherently difficult to copy; others are difficult to copy because of the
mechanisms the firm uses to protect its innovation.
2. The three primary legal mechanisms used to protect innovation in most
countries are patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Each mechanism is
designed to protect a different type of work or good.
3. International treaties have helped to harmonize patent, trademark, and
copyright laws around the world. Most countries now have patent,
trademark, and copyright laws of some form, and in some instances
protection can be applied for in multiple countries simultaneously.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI
17. Schiling Chapter Nine
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Summary of Chapter
4. Protecting an innovation also preserves the firm’s architectural control,
enabling it to direct the technology’s development, determine its
compatibility with other goods, and prevent multiple incompatible
versions of the technology from being produced by other firms.
5. Diffusing a technological innovation can encourage multiple firms to
produce, distribute, and promote the technology, possibly accelerating its
development and diffusion. Diffusion can be particularly useful in
industries that accrue increasing returns to adoption. It is also useful when
the firm has inadequate resources to be the sole developer, producer,
distributor, and marketer of a good.
LIFFIA JULIAN FAHRANI – SISTEM INFORMASI