- A leader is someone who can influence others and has managerial authority. Leadership is the process of leading a group to achieve goals. - Early leadership theories examined traits and behaviors of leaders. Trait theories were unsuccessful at identifying universal leader traits. Behavioral theories identified three leadership styles and two dimensions of leader behavior: initiating structure and consideration. - Contingency theories propose that effective leadership depends on matching a leader's style to situational factors. Fiedler's contingency model measured leader-member relations, task structure, and position power to determine if a task-oriented or relationship-oriented style would be most effective.

1. Chapter 7

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
• Summary
• Who Are Leaders, And What Is Leadership?
• What Do Early Leadership Theories Tell Us About Leadership?
• What Do The Contingency Theories Of Leadership Tell Us?
• What Is Leadership Like Today?

3. SUMMARY

4. SUMMARY
• Define leader and leadership. A leader is someone who can
influence others and who has managerial authority. Leadership is a
process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its
goals. Managers should be leaders because leading is one of the four
management functions.

5. SUMMARY
• Compare and contrast early leadership theories. Early attempts to
define leader traits were unsuccessful although later attempts found
seven traits associated with leadership. The University of Iowa
studies explored three leadership styles. The only conclusion was
that group members were more satisfied under a democratic leader
than under an autocratic one. The Ohio State studies identified two
dimensions of leader behavior—initiating structure and
consideration. A leader high in both those dimensions at times
achieved high group task performance and high group member
satisfaction, but not always. The University of Michigan studies
looked at employee-oriented leaders and production-oriented
leaders. They concluded that leaders who were employee oriented
could get high group productivity and high group member
satisfaction.

6. SUMMARY
• The managerial grid looked at leaders’ concern for production and
concern for people and identified five leader styles. Although it
suggested that a leader who was high in concern for production and
high in concern for people was the best, there was no substantive
evidence for that conclusion. As the behavioral studies showed, a
leader’s behavior has a dual nature: a focus on the task and a focus
on the people.

7. SUMMARY
• Describe the four major contingency leadership theories. Fiedler’s
model attempted to define the best style to use in particular
situations. He measured leader style—relationship oriented or task
oriented— using the least-preferred co-worker questionnaire. Fiedler
also assumed a leader’s style was fixed. He measured three
contingency dimensions: leader-member-relations, task structure,
and position power. The model suggests that task-oriented leaders
performed best in very favorable or very unfavorable situations, and
relationship-oriented leaders performed best in moderately
favorable situations

8. SUMMARY
• Describe modern views of leadership and the issues facing today’s
leaders. A transactional leader exchanges rewards for productivity
where a transformational leader stimulates and inspires followers to
achieve goals. A charismatic leader is an enthusiastic and self-
confident leader whose personality and actions influence people to
behave in certain ways. People can learn to be charismatic. A
visionary leader is able to create and articulate a realistic, credible,
and attractive vision of the future. A team leader has two priorities:
manage the team’s external boundary and facilitate the team
process. Four leader roles are involved: liaison with external
constituencies, troubleshooter, conflict manager, and coach. The
issues facing leaders today include employee empowerment,
national culture, and emotional intelligence. As employees are
empowered, the leader’s role tends to be one of not leading. As
leaders adjust their style to the situation, one of the most important
situational characteristics is national culture. Finally, EI is proving to
be an essential element in leadership effectiveness.

9. SUMMARY
• Discuss trust as the essence of leadership. The five dimensions of
trust include integrity, competence, consistency, loyalty, and
truthfulness. Integrity refers to one’s honesty and truthfulness.
Competence involves an individual’s technical and interpersonal
knowledge and skills. Consistency relates to an individual’s
reliability, predictability, and good judgment in handling situations.
Loyalty is an individual’s willingness to protect and save face for
another person. Openness means that you can rely on the individual
to give you the whole truth.

10. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this chapter we will address the following questions:
• Define leader and leadership.
• Compare and contrast early leadership theories.
• Describe the four major contingency leadership theories.
• Describe modern views of leadership and the issues facing today’s
leaders.
• Discuss trust as the essence of leadership.

11. WHO ARE LEADERS, AND WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
Section 1

12. WHO ARE LEADERS, AND WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
• A leader is someone who can
influence others and who has
managerial authority.
• Leadership is a process of
leading a group and
influencing that group to
achieve its goals. It’s what
leaders do.
• Because leading is one of the
four management functions,
ideally all managers should be
leaders.

13. WHATISLEADERSHIPLIKETODAY
VideoTime–“MillennialsintheWorkplace”
 According to Sinek, those who are
born 1984 and after are considered
a millennial. Unfortunately, they
have cultivated a less than ideal
reputation and millennials are often
accused of being “entitled,
narcissistic, unfocused and lazy.”
 Simon Sinek) is a leadership guru,
professor at Columbia University,
founder of SinekPartners (Corporate
Refocusing) and author. He is best
known for popularizing the concept
of “the golden circle” and to “Start
With Why“. Simon Sinek is also an
adjunct staff member of the RAND
Corporation.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=hER0Qp6QJNU

14. WHAT DO EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES TELL US ABOUT LEADERSHIP?
Section 2

15. WHAT TRAITS DO LEADERS HAVE?
 The average person’s definition of
leadership.
• a) Qualities such as intelligence,
charisma, decisiveness, enthusiasm,
strength, bravery, integrity, and self-
confidence.
• b) These responses represent, in
essence, trait theories of leadership.
 If the concept of traits were to prove
valid, all leaders would have to
possess specific characteristics.
 Research efforts at isolating these
traits resulted in a number of dead
ends.
 Attempts failed to identify a set of
traits that would always differentiate
leaders.

16. WHAT TRAITS DO LEADERS HAVE?
 However, attempts to identify traits
consistently associated with leadership
have been more successful.
• a) Seven traits on which leaders are
seen to differ from non-leaders include
drive, the desire to lead, honesty and
integrity, self-confidence, intelligence,
job-relevant knowledge, and
extraversion
 Explanations based solely on traits
ignore situational factors.
• a) Possessing the appropriate traits only
makes it more likely that an individual
will be an effective leader.
• b) He or she still has to take the right
actions.
 A major movement away from trait
theories began as early as the 1940s.

17. WHAT BEHAVIORS DO LEADERS EXHIBIT?
 It was hoped that the behavioral
theories would provide more
definitive answers.
• a) If behavioral studies were
correct, we could train people to
be leaders.
• b) We shall briefly review three
of the most popular studies: Kurt
Lewin’s studies at the University
of Iowa; the Ohio State group;
and the University of Michigan
studies.

18. WHAT DID THE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA TELL US
ABOUT LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR?
• One of the first studies by Kurt Lewin
and his associates at the University of
Iowa identified three leadership
behaviors, or styles: autocratic,
democratic, and laissez-faire.
• An autocratic style tends to
centralize authority, dictate work
methods, etc.
• The democratic style tends to involve
employees in decision making,
delegates authority, encourages
participation in deciding work
methods, and uses feedback to coach
employees.
• The laissez-faire leader generally
gives employees complete freedom.

19. WHAT DID THE OHIO STATE STUDIES SHOW?
• The most comprehensive and
replicated of the behavioral theories,
these studies sought to identify
independent dimensions of leader
behavior.
• Beginning with over 1,000
dimensions, they eventually
narrowed the list down to two
categories: initiating structure and
consideration.
• Initiating structure refers to the
extent to which a leader is likely to
define and structure his or her role
and those of employees in the search
for goal attainment.

20. WHAT DID THE OHIO STATE STUDIES SHOW?
• Consideration is defined as the
extent to which a leader has job
relationships characterized by
mutual trust and respect for
employees’ ideas and feelings.
• Research found that a leader
high in initiating structure and
consideration achieved high
employee performance and
satisfaction more frequently than
one who rated low on
consideration, initiating
structure, or both.

21. HOW DID THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN STUDIES DIFFER?
• Two dimensions of leadership behavior,
employee-oriented and production-
oriented.
• Employee-oriented leaders emphasized
interpersonal relations, took a personal
interest in employees’ needs, and accepted
individual differences among members.
• The production-oriented leaders
emphasized the technical aspects of the
job, focused on accomplishing their group’s
tasks, and regarded group members as a
means to that end.
• The Michigan researchers strongly favored
leaders who were employee-oriented.

22. WHAT IS THE MANAGERIAL GRID?
• The five key positions are
focused on the four corners of
the grid and a middle-ground
area.
• Blake and Mouton concluded
that managers perform best
using a 9, 9 style.
• The grid offers only a framework
for conceptualizing leadership
style—it offers no answers to the
question of what makes an
effective leader.

23. WHAT DO THE CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
Section 3

24. WHAT WAS THE FIRST COMPREHENSIVE CONTINGENCY MODEL?
• The first comprehensive contingency
model for leadership was Fiedler's
Model.
• Effective group performance depends
on the proper match between the
leader’s style of interaction and the
degree to which the situation gives
control and influence to the leader.
• Fiedler developed an instrument, the
least-preferred co-worker (LPC)
questionnaire, that measures the
leader’s behavioral orientation—
either task oriented or relationship
oriented.

26. THE FIEDLERCONTINGENCYMODEL
• He isolated three situational
criteria—leader-member relations,
task structure, and position power—
that can be manipulated to create the
proper match with the behavioral
orientation of the leader.
• This contingency leadership model is
an outgrowth of trait theory.
• Fiedler, however, attempted to isolate
situations, relating his personality
measure to his situational
classification, and then predicting
leadership effectiveness.

27. THE FIEDLERCONTINGENCYMODEL
• Fiedler argued that leadership style is
innate to a person—you can’t change your
style.
• It is necessary to match the leader with the
situation based on three criteria.
• Leader-member relations—the degree of
confidence, trust, and respect
subordinates have in their leader.
• Task structure—the degree to which the
job assignments of subordinates are
structured or unstructured.
• Position power—the degree of influence a
leader has over power variables such as
hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and
salary increases.

28. THE FIEDLERCONTINGENCYMODEL
• The next step is to evaluate the situation in
terms of these three contingency variables.
• The better the leader-member relations,
the more highly structured the job, and
the stronger the position power, the more
control or influence the leader has.
• Fiedler concluded that task-oriented
leaders perform best in situations that are
very favorable or very unfavorable to
them.
• A moderately favorable situation, however,
is best handled through relationship-
oriented leadership.
• Problems exist with the Fiedler model.
• The LPC is not well understood and scores
are not stable over time.
• The contingency variables are complex and
difficult for practitioners to assess.

29. HOW DO FOLLOWERS' WILLINGNESS AND ABILITY INFLUENCE LEADERS?
The Situational Leadership model
• Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard
developed the Situational Leadership
model.
• It shows how a leader should adjust
leadership style to reflect what
followers need.
• A contingency theory that focuses on
the followers.
• Successful leadership is contingent on
the follower’s level of readiness.
• This emphasis reflects the reality that it
is the followers who accept or reject the
leader.
• Regardless of what the leader does,
effectiveness depends on the actions of
his or her followers.
• The term “readiness” refers to the
extent that people have the ability and
the willingness to accomplish a specific
task.

30. HOW DO FOLLOWERS' WILLINGNESS AND ABILITY INFLUENCE LEADERS?
The Situational Leadership model
• Hersey and Blanchard identify four
specific behaviors.
• Telling (high task–low relationship): The
leader defines roles and tells people
what, how, when, and where to do
various tasks.
• Selling (high task–high relationship):
The leader provides both directive and
supportive behavior.
• Participating (low task–high
relationship): The leader and followers
share in decision making; the main role
of the leader is facilitating and
communicating.
• Delegating (low task–low relationship):
The leader provides little direction or
support

31. HOW DO FOLLOWERS' WILLINGNESS AND ABILITY INFLUENCE LEADERS?
The Situational Leadership model
• The most effective behavior
depends on a follower’s ability
and motivations.
• If a follower is unable and
unwilling, the leader needs to
display high task orientation.
• At the other end of the readiness
spectrum, if followers are able
and willing, the leader doesn’t
need to do much.
• SLT has an intuitive appeal, it
acknowledges the importance of
followers and builds on the idea
that leaders can compensate for
the lack of ability and motivation
of their followers.
• Research efforts to test and
support the theory have
generally been mixed.
A follower’s ability
and motivations
Leader need to
display high task
orientation
The readiness of
followers
Intuitive appeal-
importance of
followers & leaders
compensation

32. HOW PARTICIPATIVE SHOULD A LEADER BE?
Leadership-Participation model
• Back in 1973, Victor Vroom and Phillip
Yetton developed a leader-
participation model.
• It related leadership behavior and
participation to decision making.
• Recognizing that task structures have
varying demands for routine and
nonroutine activities, these
researchers argued that leader
behavior must adjust to reflect the
task structure.
• Vroom and Yetton’s model was
normative—it provided a sequential
set of rules to be followed in
determining the form and amount of
participation in decision making in
different types of situations.
• The model was a decision tree
incorporating seven contingencies
and five alternative leadership styles.

33. HOW PARTICIPATIVE SHOULD A LEADER BE?
Leadership-Participation model
• The new model retains the same five
alternative leadership styles but
expands the contingency variables to
twelve.
• Research testing the original leader-
participation model was very
encouraging.
• But the model is far too complex for
the typical manager to use regularly.
• The model has provided us with some
solid, empirically supported insights
into key contingency variables
related to leadership effectiveness.
• The model confirms that leadership
research should be directed at the
situation rather than at the person.
• Vroom, Yetton, and Jago argue
against the notion that leader
behavior is inflexible.

35. HOW DO LEADERS HELP FOLLOWERS?
Path-goal theory
• One of the most respected approaches to
leadership is path-goal theory.
• Developed by Robert House, a contingency
model of leadership that extracts key
elements from the Ohio State leadership
research and the expectancy theory of
motivation.
• The essence of the theory: the leader’s job
is to assist followers in attaining their
goals and to ensure that their goals are
compatible with the overall objectives of
the group or organization.
• A leader’s behavior is acceptable to
employees to the degree that they view it
as an immediate source of satisfaction or
as a means of future satisfaction.

36. HOW DO LEADERS HELP FOLLOWERS?
Path-goal theory
House identified four leadership
behaviors:
• a) The directive leader tells
employees what is expected of them,
schedules work, and gives specific
guidance as to how to accomplish
tasks. It parallels initiating structure.
• b) The supportive leader is friendly
and shows concern for the needs of
employees. It is essentially
synonymous with the dimension of
consideration.
• c) The participative leader consults
with employees and uses their
suggestions before making a
decision.
• d) The achievement-oriented leader
sets challenging goals and expects
employees to perform at their
highest levels.

37. HOW DO LEADERS HELP FOLLOWERS?
Path-goal theory
• In contrast to Fiedler, House assumes that
leaders are flexible.
• Path-goal theory implies that the same
leader can display any or all leadership
styles, depending on the situation.
• Two classes of contingency variables:
• Those in the environment that are outside
the control of the employee (task
structure, the formal authority system,
and the work group).
• Environmental factors determine leader
behavior required if employee outcomes
are to be maximized.
• Those that are part of the personal
characteristics of the employee (locus of
control, experience, and perceived ability).
• The theory proposes that leader behavior
will be ineffective when it is redundant to
sources of environmental structure or
incongruent with subordinate
characteristics.

38. WHAT DO THE CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
Major contingency leadership theories -Questions
• Describe the four major contingency leadership theories
• Describe modern views of leadership and the issues facing today’s
leaders

39. WHAT DO THE CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
Major contingency leadership theories - Answers
Describe the four major contingency leadership theories
• Fiedler’s model attempted to define the best style to use in particular situations. He
measured leader style—relationship oriented or task oriented— using the least-
preferred co-worker questionnaire. Fiedler also assumed a leader’s style was fixed. He
measured three contingency dimensions: leader-member-relations, task structure,
and position power. The model suggests that task-oriented leaders performed best in
very favorable or very unfavorable situations, and relationship-oriented leaders
performed best in moderately favorable situations. Hersey and Blanchard’s situational
leadership theory focused on followers’ readiness. They identified four leadership
styles: telling (high task–low relationship), selling (high task–high relationship),
participating (low task–high relationship), and delegating (low task–low relationship).
They also identified four stages of readiness: unable and unwilling (use telling style);
unable but willing (use selling style); able but unwilling (use participative style); and
able and willing (use delegating style). The leader-participation model relates
leadership behavior and participation to decision making. It uses a decision tree
format with seven contingencies and five alternative leadership styles. The path-goal
model developed by Robert House identified four leadership behaviors: directive,
supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented. He assumes that a leader can
and should be able to use any of these styles. The two situational contingency
variables were found in the environment and in the follower. Essentially the path-goal
model says that a leader should provide direction and support as needed; that is,
structure the path so the followers can achieve goals.

40. WHAT DO THE CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
Major contingency leadership theories -Answers
Describe modern views of leadership and the issues facing today’s
leaders
• A transactional leader exchanges rewards for productivity where a
transformational leader stimulates and inspires followers to achieve
goals. A charismatic leader is an enthusiastic and self-confident leader
whose personality and actions influence people to behave in certain
ways. People can learn to be charismatic. A visionary leader is able to
create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the
future. A team leader has two priorities: manage the team’s external
boundary and facilitate the team process. Four leader roles are involved:
liaison with external constituencies, troubleshooter, conflict manager,
and coach. The issues facing leaders today include employee
empowerment, national culture, and emotional intelligence. As
employees are empowered, the leader’s role tends to be one of not
leading. As leaders adjust their style to the situation, one of the most
important situational characteristics is national culture. Finally, EI is
proving to be an essential element in leadership effectiveness.

41. WHAT IS LEADERSHIP LIKE TODAY?
Section 4

42. WHAT DO THE FOUR CONTEMPORARY VIEWS
OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
• Leader-member exchange (LMX)
Theory says that leaders create
in-groups and out-groups and
those in the in-group will have
higher performance ratings, less
turnover, and greater job
satisfaction.
• Leaders who primarily use social
exchanges (or transactions) are
called transactional leaders. They
guide or motivate followers to
work toward established goals by
exchanging rewards for their
productivity

43. WHAT DO THE FOUR CONTEMPORARY VIEWS
OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
• Transformational leaders inspire
followers to transcend their own self-
interests for the good of the
organization and are capable of
having a profound and extraordinary
effect on his or her followers.
• Transformational leaders pay
attention to the concerns and
developmental needs of individual
followers; they change followers’
awareness of issues by helping those
followers to look at old problems in
new ways; and they are able to
excite, arouse, and inspire followers
to put out extra effort to achieve
group goals.
• Transactional and transformational
leadership are not opposing
approaches.

44. WHAT DO THE FOUR CONTEMPORARY VIEWS
OF LEADERSHIP TELL US?
• Transformational leadership is built on
transactional leadership.
• a) Transformational leadership
produces higher levels of employee
effort and performance.
• b) It is more than charisma.
• c) The transformational leader will
attempt to instill in followers the ability
to question not only established views
but eventually those established by the
leader.
• The evidence supporting the
superiority of transformational
leadership over the transactional variety
is overwhelmingly impressive.
• In summary, the overall evidence
indicates that transformational
leadership is more strongly correlated
with lower turnover rates, higher
productivity, and higher employee
satisfaction.

45. HOW DO CHARISMATICAND VISIONARY
LEADERSDIFFER?
• Charismatic leadership theory is an
extension of attribution theory.
• a) It says that followers make
attributions of heroic or extraordinary
leadership abilities when they observe
certain behaviors.
• Several authors have attempted to
identify personal characteristics of the
charismatic leader.
• a) Robert House has identified three:
extremely high confidence, dominance,
and strong convictions.
• b) Warren Bennis found that they had
four common competencies: they had a
compelling vision or sense of purpose;
they could communicate that vision in
clear terms that their followers could
readily identify with; they demonstrated
consistency and focus in the pursuit of
their vision; and they knew their own
strengths and capitalized on them.

46. HOW DO CHARISMATICAND VISIONARY
LEADERSDIFFER?
• Most experts believe individuals can be
trained to exhibit charismatic
behaviors.
• There is an increasing body of research
that shows impressive correlations
between charismatic leadership and
high performance and satisfaction
among followers.
• a) Charismatic leadership may be most
appropriate when the follower’s task
has an ideological component.
• b) Second, charismatic leaders may be
ideal for pulling an organization
through a crisis but become a liability to
an organization once the crisis and the
need for dramatic change subside.
• Visionary leadership goes beyond
charisma.

47. HOW DO CHARISMATICAND VISIONARY
LEADERSDIFFER?
• Visionary leadership is the ability to
create and articulate a realistic,
credible, attractive vision of the future
for an organization or organizational
unit that grows out of and improves
upon the present.
• The key properties of a vision seem to
be inspirational possibilities that are
value centered, realizable, with
superior imagery and articulation.
• a) Visions should be able to create
possibilities that are inspirational,
unique, and offer a new order that can
produce organizational distinction.
• b) Desirable visions fit the times and
circumstances and reflect the
uniqueness of the organization.
• c) People in the organization must also
believe that the vision is attainable.

48. WHAT ABOUT LEADERS AND TEAMS?
• Leadership is increasingly taking place
within a team context.
• As teams grow in popularity, the role of
the team leader takes on heightened
importance.
• Many leaders are not equipped to
handle the change to teams.
• One prominent consultant estimates: 15
percent of managers are natural team
leaders; another 15 percent could never
lead a team because it runs counter to
their personality.
• The challenge for most managers is in
becoming an effective team leader.
• a) Effective leaders have mastered the
difficult balancing act of knowing when
to leave their teams alone and when to
intercede.
• b) New team leaders may try to retain
too much control or they may abandon
their teams.
Many leaders are
not equipped to
handle teams
Challenges- to
become effective
team leader
New team leaders
retain much control
and abandon
teams

49. WHAT ABOUT LEADERS AND TEAMS?
• A study of 20 organizations that
had reorganized themselves
around teams found certain
common responsibilities that all
leaders had to assume.
• a) These included coaching,
facilitating, handling disciplinary
problems, reviewing
team/individual performance,
training, and communication.
• A more meaningful way to
describe the team leader’s job is
to focus on two priorities:
managing the team’s external
boundary and facilitating the
team process.

50. WHAT ABOUT LEADERS AND TEAMS?
• First, team leaders are liaisons
with external constituencies.
• a) The leader represents the
team to other constituencies,
secures needed resources,
clarifies others’ expectations of
the team, gathers information
from the outside, and shares this
information with team members.
• Second, team leaders are
troubleshooters.
• a) When the team has problems
and asks for assistance, team
leaders sit in on meetings and
help try to resolve the problems.
• b) This rarely relates to technical
or operation issues.

51. WHAT ABOUT LEADERS AND TEAMS?
• Third, team leaders are conflict
managers.
• a) When disagreements surface,
they help process the conflict.
What’s the source of the conflict?
Who is involved? What are the
issues? What resolution options
are available? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of
each?
• Finally, team leaders are coaches.
• a) They clarify expectations and
roles, teach, offer support,
cheerlead, and whatever else is
necessary to help team members
improve their work performance.

52. WHAT ISSUES DO TODAY'S LEADERS FACE?
• Technology continues to change
rapidly—almost daily.
• Business costs continue to rise.
• Empowerment involves increasing
the decision-making discretion of
workers.
• One reason more companies are
empowering employees is the need
for quick decisions by those people
who are most knowledgeable about
the issues—often those at lower
organizational levels.
Change rapidly of
technology
Business rises
Empowerment –
increase decision
making

53. WHAT ISSUES DO TODAY'S LEADERS FACE?
• They emphasize follower
responsibilities rather than rights;
assume hedonism rather than
commitment to duty or altruistic
motivation; assume centrality of work
and democratic value orientation;
and stress rationality rather than
spirituality, religion, or superstition.
• As a guide for adjusting your
leadership style, you might consider
the value dimensions of national
culture.
• Power distance rankings should also
be good indicators of employee
willingness to accept participative
leadership.
• Participation is likely to be most
effective in such low power distance
cultures (Norway, Finland, Denmark,
and Sweden).

54. WHAT ISSUES DO TODAY'S LEADERS FACE?
• Does National Culture Affect
Leadership?
• a) National culture is an important
situational factor determining which
leadership style will be most effective.
• b) We propose that you consider it as
another contingency variable.
• c) National culture affects leadership
style by way of the follower.
• d) Leaders’ choice of styles is
constrained by the cultural conditions
that their followers have come to
expect. See Exhibit 12-6.
• e) Most leadership theories were
developed in the United States, using
U.S. subjects

55. HOW DOES EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AFFECT
LEADERSHIP?
• Recent studies indicating that EI—
more than I.Q., expertise, or any
other single factor—is the best
predictor of who will emerge as a
leader.
• a) I.Q. and technical skills are
“threshold capabilities.”
• b) It’s the possession of the five
components of emotional
intelligence—self-awareness, self-
management, self-motivation,
empathy, and social skills—that
allows an individual to become a star
performer.

56. HOW DOES EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AFFECT
LEADERSHIP?
• Evidence indicates that the higher the
rank of a person considered to be a star
performer, the more that EI capabilities
surface as the reason for his or her
effectiveness.
• a) When star performers were
compared with average ones in senior
management positions, nearly 90
percent of the difference in their
effectiveness was attributable to EI
factors rather than basic intelligence.
• b) Example, the maturing of Rudolph
Giuliani’s leadership effectiveness.
• c) EI appears to be especially relevant in
jobs that demand a high degree of social
interaction.
• d) EI should probably be added to the
list of traits associated with leadership.

57. WHATISLEADERSHIPLIKETODAY?
VideoTime–EmotionalIntelligence:HowGoodLeadersBecomeGreat
 “Instructor Mitchel Adler, Psy.D., CGP,
discusses emotional intelligence and
how good leaders use it to their
advantage”.
 Mitchel Adler, Psy.D., CGP is a licensed
Clinical Psychologist, Certified Group
Psychotherapist and the creator of
MindBody Intelligence™ (MBI). He has
served on the faculty of the UC Davis
School of Medicine and is co-author of
the book, Promoting Emotional
Intelligence in Organizations (ASTD
press) and other research articles.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HA
15YZlF_kM