The document discusses the second law of thermodynamics. It introduces Kelvin-Planck's statement that it is impossible to construct an engine that produces work without transferring heat from a hot reservoir and into a cold reservoir. Clausius' statement is also presented, that it is impossible to spontaneously transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body without an external work input. The two statements are shown to be equivalent. Reversible and irreversible processes are defined. The Carnot cycle is described as an ideal reversible thermodynamic cycle consisting of reversible isothermal and adiabatic processes, with its efficiency dependent only on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.
Engineering Thermodynamics-second law of thermodynamics Mani Vannan M
This file consists of content which covers the basics of second law of thermodynamics,heat reservoir,heat source ,heat sink,refrigerator, heat pump,heat engine,carnot theorem,carnot cycle and reversed carnot cycle
Engineering Thermodynamics-second law of thermodynamics Mani Vannan M
This file consists of content which covers the basics of second law of thermodynamics,heat reservoir,heat source ,heat sink,refrigerator, heat pump,heat engine,carnot theorem,carnot cycle and reversed carnot cycle
This presentation briefly describes the Carnot cycle and the theorem associated with it. It also states about the Carnot reversible engine with the help of diagrams it illustrates the processes that occur inside the Carnot engine SOURCE: The source should be at a fixed high-temperature 𝑻_𝟏 from which the heat engine can draw heat. It has infinite thermal capacity and any amount of heat can be drawn from it at constant temperature 𝑻_𝟏.
SINK: The sink should be at a fixed lower temperature 𝑻_𝟐 to which any amount of energy can be rejected. It also has infinite thermal capacity and its temperature remains at a constant temperature 𝑻_𝟐.
WORKING SUBSTANCE: A cylinder with non-conducting sides and a conducting bottom contains the perfect gas as a working substance. A perfect non-conducting and frictionless piston are fitted into the cylinder. The working substance undergoes a complete cyclic operation. A perfect non-conducting stand is also provided so that the working substance can undergo an adiabatic operation.The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of two isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle can be thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws. When the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat in a heat engine can be used to do work, the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on the fraction of the heat which can be so used.
In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the heat engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in entropy. This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealization, since no real engine processes are reversible and all real physical processes involve some increase in entropy.The working substance is subjected to the following cycle or quasi-static operations known as Carnot’s cycle to obtain a continuous supply of work.
ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION: The cylinder is first placed on the source so that the gas acquires the temperature T1 of the source. It is then allowed to undergo quasi-static expansion. As the gas expands, its temperature tends to fall. Heat passes into the cylinder through the perfectly conducting base which is in contact with the source. The gas, therefore, undergoes slow isothermal expansion at the constant temperature T1. Let the working substance during isothermal expansion goes from its initial state A(𝑷_𝟏,𝑽_𝟏,𝑻_𝟏) to the state B(𝑷_𝟐,𝑽_𝟐,𝑻_𝟏) at constant temperature T1 and does work W1 given by
ADIABATIC EXPANSION: The cylinder is now removed from the source and placed on the insulating stand. The gas is allowed to undergo slow adiabatic expansion, performing external work at the expense of its internal energy, until its temperature falls to T2, the same as that of the sink.
This process is represented by the adiabatic BC, starting from state B (𝑷_𝟐,𝑽_𝟐,𝑻_𝟏) to the state C(𝑷_𝟑,𝑽_𝟑,𝑻_𝟐) . In this process, there is no tras
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FellowBuddy.com is an innovative platform that brings students together to share notes, exam papers, study guides, project reports and presentation for upcoming exams.
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TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
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The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
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Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
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Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...
Chapter 4 second law
1. 42
Chapter 4
THE SECOND LAW
OF THERMODYNAMICS
4.1 Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics
If a well insulated tank of fluid is stirred by a rotating paddle wheel, the energy of the fluid
increases. If the stirrer is stopped, however the energy of the fluid will not decrease and cause the
stirrer to rotate in the opposite direction. The possibility of this process proceeding in the opposite
direction is not excluded by the first law of Thermodynamics. Hence first law of thermodynamics
does not allow us to predict whether a proposed conceived energy conversion is possible or not.
In all the internal combustion engines fuel and air mixture is supplied at room temperature.
This mixture undergoes combustion inside the engine and gives out work. Exhaust gases coming
out of the engine are always at higher temperature, indicating that some heat is taken away into
atmosphere. Hence, in all the IC engines only a part of the heat is converted into work. From our
experience we know that if any attempt is made to convert all the heat into work, our effort will
go in vain. This limitation in the extent of energy conversion has also not been addressed in first
law of thermodynamics.
4.2 The Second law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin Planck’s statement : It is impossible to construct a device that, operating
continuously, will produce no effect other than transfer of heat
from a single thermal reservoir and performance of an equal
amount of work.
The term thermal reservoir refers to a very large system in stable equilibrium, to which or
from which, any amount of heat can be transferred at constant temperature.
A thermal reservoir supplying heat continuously at constant temperature is known as
source. (Example : Sun)
A thermal reservoir receiving heat continuously at constant temperature is known as sink.
(Examples : River, Sea)
From Kelvin-Planck statement it is clear that for any system to operate in a cycle and to
give out work continuously it should interact with a minimum of two reservoirs at different
temperatures. The system will receive heat from the high temperature reservoir and reject heat to
the low temperature reservoir. Such devices are known as heat engines. Performance (or)
Efficiency of a heat engine can be expressed as the ratio of desired output to the required input. In
a heat engine the desired output is net work output and the required input is total heat input
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2. 43
Figure 4.1 Heat Engine
in
net
Q
W
=η
...(4.1)
From first law of thermodynamics
ΣQ = ΣW
Qin
− Qout
= Wnet
...(4.2)
Clausius statement : Unaided by an external agency heat can not be transferred from a body at
lower temperature to a body at higher temperature.
Devices that are used to transfer heat from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher
temperature are known as refrigerators (or) heat pumps. If the high temperature side is
atmosphere it is a refrigerator. If the low temperature side is atmosphere it is known as a heat
pump. The performance index here is called coefficient of performance (COP). In refrigerator
(and heat pumps) the performance is the ratio of two independent parameters and hence the
possibility of getting the value more than unity is always there. But the term efficiency is
restricted to a maximum of unity. Hence the term efficiency is not used here.
Source
Heat
Engine
Sink
W
Qin
Qout
Desired
Effect
Required
Effect
W
Q
COP
Effectquired
EffectDesired
COP
2
Re
=
=
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3. 44
Taking work as external agency, for refrigerators (Figure 4.2)
...(4.3)
From first law
ΣQ = ΣW
Q1
− Q2
= W
Figure 4.2 Refrigerator
Sink
[Atmosphere]
Refrige
rator
Source
[conditioned Space]
W
Q1
Q2
Desired
Effect
Required
Effect
21
2
QQ
Q
COP
−
=
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5. 46
4.3 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements
The Clausius and Kelvin-Planck statements of the second law are entirely equivalent. This
equivalence can be demonstrated by showing that the violation of either statement can result in
violation of the other one.
Referring to Figure 4.4(a) the device marked Clausius violator is pumping Q1
amount of
heat from a low temperature reservoir at T1
to a high temperature reservoir at T2
without the aid of
any external agency. This is an impossible arrangement.
If such an arrangement is possible it would also violate Kelvin-Planck statement. Let a heat
engine operating between the same reservoirs at T2
and T1
take in Q2
as heat input at T2
. It
converts a part of this heat into work and rejects heat Q3
to the sink at T1
. Since the Clausius
violator is rejecting the same quantity Q2
at T2
, it can be supplied directly into the heat engine so
that the reservoir at T2
can be eliminated. This combination as shown in Figure 4.4 (b) is
producing continuous work with a single reservoir at T1
. Hence it violates the Kelvin-Planck
statement.
(a)
Reservoir at T1
Heat
EngineClausius
violator
Reservoir
at T2
Q1
Q2
Q3
Reservoir
at T2
W
Q2
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6. 47
(b)
Figure 4.4 Illustration of the equivalence of Clausius and Kelvin-Planck’s statement
Referring to Figure 4.5 a Kelvin-planck violator is converting all heat QH
taken from the
reservoir at TH
into work. If such an impossible heat engine is assumed to exist it will violate the
Clausius statement. Consider a refrigerator pumping QL
heat from the low temperature reservoir
at TL
to the reservoir at higher temperature TH
. Combined with the Kelvin-Planck violator, the
arrangement is pumping QL
heat from TL
to TH
, without any external agency. Hence it violate the
Clausius statement.
4.4 Reversible Process
A process is said to be reversible if it can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings.
For example, let a system be taken from state 1 to state 2 with a work transfer of +5 kJ and
heat transfer of −10 kJ. If the process is reversible, while taking the system from state 2 to state 1,
the work transfer must be −5 kJ and heat transfer must be +10 kJ. So that, both the system and
surroundings are returned to their initial states at the end of the process 2 to 1.
4.5 Irreversibility and Causes of Irreversibility
The factors that make a process irreversible are known as irreversibilities. Various forms of
irreversibilities are listed below.
Reservoir at T1
Heat
Engine
Clausius
violator
Q1
Q2
Q3
W
Q2
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7. 48
a) Friction : Friction occurs at the interface of two bodies moving relative to each
other. It is the main cause of irreversibility in many processes. Energy
spent in overcoming friction is dissipated in the form of heat which
can never be restored.
b) Heat transfer: Once heat is transferred from a body at higher temperature to a body
at lower temperature, it can never be reversed without the aid of an
external agency.
through finite
temperature
difference
c) Unresisted expansion :
Consider a vessel with two chambers as given in the
arrangement as shown in Fig. 4.6. If the members separating the gas
from vacuum is removed, gas will expand and occupy the entire space.
Since the expansion has no influence on the surroundings, there is no
work output in this process. But to restore the initial arrangement, a
definite work input is required.
d) Mixing of two gases : Consider a vessel with two chambers, one with O2
and the other with
N2
. When the member separating O2
& N2
is removed, uniform mixing
is taking place without any work output. But such a process can not be
reversed without any work input.
e) Throttling : It is a totally irreversible process. Gas or vapour will expand
through a restricted passage with its pressure decreasing rapidly
without any work output. Such an expansion can not be reversed.
4.6 Externally and internally reversible processes
As mentioned earlier if no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries during the
process, it is known as externally reversible.
If no irreversibilities occur within the boundary of the system during a process, it is known
as internally reversible process. For such a process, the path of the reverse process will follow
exactly that of the forward process in any property diagram.
To be totally reversible or simply reversible both external and internal reversibilities must
be ensured.
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8. 49
4.7 The Carnot Cycle
In 1824, Nicholas Sadi Carnot proposed a classical ideal cycle consisting of four processes.
All processes are individually reversible and hence the cycle as a whole is a reversible cycle. The
processes that make up the Carnot cycle are :
Process 1-2
The working substance is taken in a piston cylinder arrangement as given in Figure 4.8(a).
Heat is added reversibly and isothermally from a high temperature reservoir at TH
. Since the
process is to be reversible, the temperature TH
of the reservoir should be equal to or
infinitesimally greater than that of the working substance.
Figure 4.8(a) Figure 4.8(b)
Process 2-3
The working substance is allowed to expand reversibly and adiabatically until its
temperature falls down to TL
. The process is represented by Figure 4.8(b)
Process 3-4
Heat is rejected by the working substance to a low temperature reservoir kept TL
or at
temperature infinitesimally smaller than TL
.
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9. 50
Process 4-1
The working substance is then compressed reversibly and adiabatically until its
temperature becomes TH
and the cycle continues.
The cycle has been represented in a p-V diagram in Figure 4.9. The included area
represents the net work done in the cycle. From first law of thermodynamics net workdone is
equal to net heat transfer in the cycle. Since QH
is the heat added to system and QL
is the heat
rejected by the system, the neat heat transfer is QH
− QL
.
Efficiency of Carnot Engine =
in
net
Q
W
=
in
LH
Q
QQ −
=
in
L
Q
Q
−1
Where
QL = 3
W4
+ U4
− U3
Since the process is isothermal U4
= U3
∴ QL
= 3
W4
1
v
4 3
2
p
Isothermal heat
addition
Adiabatic expansion
Isothermal heat
rejection
Adiabatic compression
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10. 51
= P3
V3
ln
4
3
p
p
= mRTL
ln
4
3
p
p
Similarly QH
= mRTH
ln
1
2
p
p
Process 2-3 is reversible adiabatic
L
H
T
T
p
p
T
T
=
=
−
γ
γ 1
3
2
3
2
∴
Process 4-1 is also reversible adiabatic
∴
L
H
T
T
p
p
T
T
=
=
−
γ
γ 1
4
1
4
1
From the above two expressions
Substituting the above condition we get
It shows that efficiency of carnot engine is purely a function of TH
and TL
.
Since the carnot cycle being completely reversible, if carried out in reverse direction, the
magnitudes of all energy transfers remain the same but their sign change. This reversed carnot
4
3
1
2
4
1
3
2
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
p
=
=
H
L
L
L
in
L
Carnot
T
T
p
p
mRT
p
p
mRT
Q
Q
−=
−=−=
1
ln
ln
11
1
2
4
3
η
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11. 52
cycle can be applied for a refrigerator or a heat pump. Figure 4.10 shows the p-V diagram of a
reversed carnot cycle.
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