Chapter 3The Civilization of the GreeksCopyright © 2017 Ceng.docx

Chapter 3
The Civilization of the Greeks
Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
1
Learning Objectives (Slide 1 of 3)
Explain how the geography of Greece affected Greek history
Summarize the contributions of Homer and why his work was
used as the basis for Greek education
Identify the chief features of the polis, or city-state
Compare the major city-states of Athens and Sparta
2
Describe the Greek ideal of democracy and the ways in which
the Athenian political system was a democracy
Discuss the effect of the two great fifth century B.C.E. conflicts
– the Persian wars and the Peloponnesian War –- on Greek
civilization
3

Describe the ideals upon which Greek art was based and how
those ideals were expressed
Debate the questions posed by Greek philosophers, as well as
their own responses to these questions
4
Early Greece (Slide 1 of 2)
Greek history has been shaped by its:
Mountainous terrain: Separated independent Greek communities
from one another
Long seacoast: Enabled contact with outside world; later
establishment of colonies
Minoan Crete
A Bronze Age civilization that used metals in making weapons
Established by 2800 B.C.E.
Not Greek in language or religion
The first Greek state: Mycenae
Flourished between 1600 and 1100 B.C.E.
Warriors who prided themselves on their heroic deeds in battle
The most famous of all their supposed military adventures: the
epic poetry of Homer
Invaded from the north by Greek-speaking people; torched
around 1190 B.C.E
The Greeks in a Dark Age
(ca. 1100–ca. 750 B.C.E.) (Slide 1 of 2)

Homer and Homeric Greece
Illiad
Epic poem of Trojan War
The tale of the Greek hero Achilles and how the “wrath of
Achilles” led to disaster
Odyssey
Epic journey of a Greek hero
Tests Odysseus’ heroism until, by both cunning and patience, he
prevails
(ca. 1100–ca. 750 B.C.E.) (Slide 2 of 2)
Homer’s enduring importance
His Iliad and the Odyssey were regarded as authentic history
Used as standard texts for the education of generations of Greek
males’ striving for excellence, called arete
In the Homeric world, aristocratic women were expected to
pursue excellence
The World of the Greek City-States
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 1 of 5)
The polis
The central institution in Greek life
The acropolis, or hill, was the central point where the citizens
of the polis could assemble for political, social, and religious
activities
A new military system: the Greek way of war
Hoplites, Phalanx

(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 2 of 5)
Colonization and the growth of trade
750 – 550 B.C.E.
Colonization led to the spread of Greek culture throughout the
Mediterranean basin and to increased trade and industry
Tyranny in the Greek polis
Tyrants
Oligarchies
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 3 of 5)
Sparta
Perioikoi and Helots
The new Sparta
Sparta transformed by sixth century B.C.E. to military state
The Spartan state
Led by two kings
Elected a group of five men, the ephors, to oversee the
education of youth and the conduct of all citizens
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 4 of 5)
Athens: The reforms of Solon
Canceled all current land debts
Outlawed new loans based on humans as collateral
Freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 5 of 5)
Athens: The reforms of Cleisthenes

Made the demes the basic units of political life
Laid the foundations for Athenian democracy
By 500 B.C.E., Athens was more united than it had ever been
and was about to assume a more important role in Greek affairs
Chronology: Archaic Greece –SpartaEventDatesConquest of
Messeniaca. 730–710 B.C.E.Beginning of Peloponnesian
Leagueca. 560–550 B.C.E.
Table description: The tables details the chronology of events in
archaic Greece in Sparta.
14
Chronology: Archaic Greece – AthensEventDatesSolon’s
reforms594–593 B.C.E.Tyranny of Pisistratusca. 560–556 and
546–527 B.C.E.End of tyranny510 B.C.E.Cleisthenes’s
reformsca. 508–501 B.C.E.
archaic Greece in Athens.
15
The High Point of Greek Civilization: Classical Greece (Slide 1
of 3)
The challenge of Persia
Darius attacks the mainland Greeks in 490
Xerxes vowed revenge; invaded Greece after the death of Darius
Leonidas at Thermopylae

of 3)
The growth of an Athenian empire in the Age of Pericles
Severed ties with Sparta
Expanded democracy at home and its new empire abroad
The great Peloponnesian War
Sparta and its supporters against the Athenian empire
27 year war lasting from 431 – 405 B.C.E.
of 3)
The decline of the Greek states (404–338 B.C.E.)
The Peloponnesian War weakened the major Greek states
Persians offered financial support to Athens and other Greek
states to oppose Spartan power within Greece itself, thus
beginning a new war that finally ended in 386 B.C.E.
The Culture and Society of Classical Greece (Slide 1 of 3)
The writing of history
History, the systematic analysis of past events, was a Greek
creation
Herodotus: author of The Persian Wars, a work commonly
regarded as the first real history in Western civilization
Greek drama
Intended to entertain and to educate citizens
Supported by the state
The arts: the classical ideal

The arts of the Western world have been largely dominated by
the artistic standards established by the Greeks of the classical
period
The Greek love of wisdom
Sophists
Rhetoric
The Socratic method
Greek religion
Intricately connected to every aspect of daily life.
Social and practical
Life in classical Athens
Economy: largely agricultural but highly diversified
Lifestyle: simple homes and diets
Family: primary function – to produce new citizens
Discussion Questions
What important Greek ideals and Greek values are revealed in
this passage from the Iliad?
According to Pericles, what are the ideals of Athenian
democracy?
How did the Greek view of the world shape Greek conceptions
of gender and gender roles?
Chapter 1
The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

1
Identify the differences between the Paleolithic and Neolithic
Ages
Describe the ways in which the Neolithic Revolution affected
the lives of men and women
Explain the transformations brought by the agricultural
revolution
2
Discuss the characteristics of civilization and the various
explanations given for why early civilizations emerged
Outline the characteristics of civilization in ancient
Mesopotamia
Compare the similarities and differences between the three
major periods of Egyptian history
3
Analyze the changing roles of men and women from the
agricultural revolution through the Mesopotamian and Egyptian
civilizations

4
Hominids
Australopithecines (3-4 million years ago; simple stone tools;
limited to Africa)
Homo Erectus (1.5 million years ago; larger, more varied tools;
moves into Europe and Asia)
The First Humans (Slide 1 of 2)
The First Humans (Slide 2 of 2)
The emergence of Homo sapiens (“wise human being”)
Neanderthals, (ca. 100,000–30,000 years ago)
More advanced stone tools; burial of the dead
Homo sapiens sapiens, (ca. 200,000 B.C.E.–Present): replaced
Neanderthals
The spread of humans: out of Africa or multiregional?
The Neolithic Revolution
(c. 10,000 – 4000 B.C.E.)
Consequences of the Neolithic Revolution
Trade; specialized division of labor
Improved tools
Domestication of animals
Development of writing
Use of metals
Copper + tin = bronze
The Bronze Age (ca. 3000 B.C. – ca. 1200 B.C.E.)

Chronology: The First
HumansHumanYearsAustralopithecinesFlourished ca. 3–4
million years agoHomo erectusFlourished ca. 100,000–1.5
million years agoNeanderthalsFlourished ca. 200,000–30,000
B.C.E.Homo sapiens sapiensEmerged ca. 200,000 B.C.E.
Table Description: The type of humans and the time period
during which they lived.
8
The Emergence of Civilization
Six characteristics of civilization
Urban focus (cities as important centers of development)
Distinct religious structure (gods; priests)
Political and military structures (bureaucracy; armies)
Social structure based on economic power
Writing (record keeping)
Artistic and intellectual activity
Civilization in Mesopotamia (Slide 1 of 2)
The city-states of ancient Mesopotamia
Sumerian cities: temple built on a ziggurat
Kingship: divine in origin
Economy and society: agricultural, trade
Empires in ancient Mesopotamia
The Code of Hammurabi

10
Civilization in Mesopotamia (Slide 2 of 2)
The culture of Mesopotamia
The importance of religion
Polytheistic
Arts of divination
Theocracy
The cultivation of new arts and sciences
Cuneiform
11
Semitic Languages
Akkadian
Arabic
Aramaic
Assyrian
Babylonian
Canaanitic
Hebrew
Phoenician
Syriac
Note: Languages in italic type are no longer spoken.
Table Description: Semitic Languages, whether still spoken or
no longer spoken, are listed.
12
Egyptian Civilization:
“The Gift of the Nile”

The impact of geography
The “miracle” of the Nile: annual, predictable flooding
The food surplus of the fertile valley
Transportation
Security
Changelessness
The Old and Middle Kingdoms
(Slide 1 of 2)
Upper and Lower Egypt United (ca. 3100 B.C.E.)
The Old Kingdom (ca. 2575 – 2125 B.C.E.)
Prosperity and stability
Pharaohs (divine kings, absolute rulers)
Ma’at
Bureaucracy and the office of vizier
Nomes (provinces)
The Old and Middle Kingdoms
(Slide 2 of 2)
The First Intermediate Period (ca. 2125 – 2010 B.C.E.)
The Middle Kingdom (ca. 2010 – 1630 B.C.E.)
Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt
Organized hierarchically
Pharaoh at the top
Upper class (nobles and priests)
Merchants and artisans
Lower classes: serfs
Majority of population
Bound to land

Taxpayers
Military and labor service
The Culture of Egypt (Slide 1 of 2)
Religion
Sun cult (Atum; Re)
Osiris, Isis, and Seth
Book of the Dead
The Pyramids
Designed as a city of the dead
Physical body and spiritual body (ka)
Mummification
Great Pyramid at Giza (ca. 2540 B.C.E.)
The Culture of Egypt (Slide 2 of 2)
Art and writing
Functional and integral in ritual
Writing (hieroglyphs: “priest-carvings”)
Daily Life in Ancient Egypt
Marriage
Husband as master of the house
Wife as in charge of the household and the education of
children
Women
Labor, property, and inheritance
Hatshepsut, female pharaoh
Arranged marriages
Divorce allowed; adultery strictly prohibited

Chronology: The EgyptiansPeriodYearsEarly Dynastic Period
(Dynasties 1–3)ca. 3100–2575 B.C.E.Old Kingdom (Dynasties
4–8)ca. 2575–2125 B.C.E.First Intermediate Period
(Dynasties 9–11)ca. 2125–2010 B.C.E.Middle Kingdom
(Dynasties 12–13)ca. 2010–1630 B.C.E.Second Intermediate
Period
(Dynasties 14–17)ca. 1630–1539 B.C.E.New Kingdom
(Dynasties 18–20)ca. 1539–1069 B.C.E.Postempire Egypt
(Dynasties 21–31)1069–30 B.C.E.
Table Description: Thirty-one Dynasties of the Egyptians and
the years during which they were active.
20
What were some of the key characteristics that separated homo
sapiens sapiens from other early hominids?
Why is Mesopotamia called the Cradle of Civilization?
Why was Egyptian civilization so interested in death and dying?
Chapter 2
Ancient New East: Peoples and Empires
Identify the significance of the Indo-European-speaking peoples

Discuss the extent to which the Israelites were able to establish
a united state
Explain what made the Jewish faith unique in the ancient Near
East and how it evolved over time
2
Describe the neighbors of the Israelites and their impact
Outline the methods and institutions the Assyrians used to
amass and maintain their empires
Compare the methods and institutions used by the Persians to
amass and maintain their empires to those of the Assyrians
3
On the Fringes of Civilization
Significant developments took place on the fringes of
Mesopotamia and Egypt
Late Neolithic Europe, 3200 and1500 B.C.E.: megalithic
structures
The Indo-Europeans
Language from a single parent tongue: Greek, Latin, Persian,
Sanskrit, Germanic
The Hittite Empire
Suppiluliumas, ca. 1370–1330 B.C.E.
Use of iron; assimilation of other cultures

The Hebrews: “The Children of Israel” (Slide 1 of 3)
Semitic-speaking people
Traditions of the Hebrew Bible
Spiritual legacy of Western civilization
Between 1200 and 1000 B.C.E.
Israelites emerged as a distinct group of people, possibly
organized in tribes or a league of tribes
Was there a United Kingdom of Israel?
Saul, David, and Solomon
The kingdoms of Israel (ten northern tribes) and Judah (two
southern tribes)
The spiritual dimensions of Israel developed over time:
monotheism
“I Am the Lord Your God”; “You Only Have I Chosen”
The covenant, the law, and the prophets
Chronology: The IsraelitesEventDatesSaulca. 1020–1000
B.C.E.Davidca. 1000–970 B.C.E.Solomonca. 970–930
B.C.E.Northern kingdom of Israel destroyed by Assyria722 or
721 B.C.E.Southern kingdom of Judah falls to Chaldeans;
destruction of Jerusalem586 B.C.E.Return of exiles to
Jerusalem538 B.C.E.
Table Description: Events during the time of the Israelites and
the dates which they occurred.
7

The neighbors of the Israelites
Philistines
Coastal towns; conflict with Israelites
Phoenicians
Trading empire in the Mediterranean
Culturally, best known as transmitters
Alphabet passed on to the Greeks, and then, the Romans
The Assyrian Empire
Organization of the empire
Kings and local officials
The Assyrian military machine
Large, well organized, and disciplined
Exploited iron weapons and brutal methods
Assyrian society and culture
Polyglot society
Assimilated much of Mesopotamian culture
The Persian Empire (Slide 1 of 2)
Neo-Babylonian Empire: Nebuchadnezzar
Fell to the Persians in 539 B.C.
Cyrus the Great (559–530 B.C.E.)
Media: the first satrapy, or province
Expanding the empire
Greece, Asia Minor
The Persian Empire (Slide 2 of 2)
Governing the empire: the Royal Road
“Protector of the kingdom:” satrap
The Great King: Darius

Ruled the largest empire in the world thus far
Source of all justice; palace builder
Weakened by hoarding of wealth/taxation
Persian religion: Zoroastrianism
Struggle between good and evil; last judgment
Chronology: The Ancient Empires – The
AssyriansEventDate(s)Height of power700
B.C.E.Ashurbanipal669–627 B.C.E.Fall of Nineveh612
B.C.E.Destruction of the Assyrian Empire605 B.C.E.
Table Description: Events during the time of the Assyrians and
12
ChaldeansEventDate(s)Ascendancy in Babylonia600s
B.C.E.Height of Neo-Babylonian Empire under King
Nebuchadnezzar II605–562 B.C.E.Fall of Babylon539 B.C.E.
Table Description: Events during the time of the Chaldeans and
13
PersiansEventDate(s)Unification under Achaemenid
dynasty600s B.C.E.Persian control over Medes550
B.C.E.Conquests of Cyrus the Great559–530 B.C.E.Cambyses

and conquest of Egypt530–522 B.C.E.Reign of Darius521–486
B.C.E.
Table Description: Events during the time of the Persians and
14
Compare Hammurabi’s Code and the Covenant. Is one more
compassionate than the other in their views of society?
What role did terror play in Assyrian military tactics?
How were the Persians able to conquer and maintain their large
empire?
Chapter 5
The Roman
Republic
Explain the impact that geography had on the history of Rome
Summarize the influence of Greeks and Etruscans on Roman
history
Describe the major political institutions of the Roman republic
Identify the policies and institutions that help explain the
Roman success in conquering Italy

Explain how Rome achieved its empire from 264 to 133 B.C.E.
with Roman imperialism
Discuss how the acquisition of an empire affected Roman social
and economic institutions, values and attitudes, and art and
literature
Analyze the major problems that Rome faced during the last
century of the republic and how they were ultimately resolved
The Emergence of Rome (Slide 1 of 2)
The impact of geography on Roman history
Large fertile plains ideal for farming
Apennines less rugged than Greek mountains
Jutting peninsula provided important crossroads in
Mediterranean
Rome:
Access to sea, but inland enough for safety
Built on seven hills; easily defended
The Emergence of Rome (Slide 2 of 2)
The Greeks in Italy
Arrived in large numbers during the age of Greek colonization
(750-550 B.C.E.)
The Etruscans
After 650 B.C.E., became the dominant cultural and economic

force
Early Rome
Under the influence of the Etruscans for one hundred years
The Roman Republic (ca. 509–264 B.C.E.) (Slide 1 of 3)
The Roman state
Political institutions
Consuls and Praetors possessed Imperium
Quaestors and Aediles assisted
Roman Senate
Centuriate assembly
The struggle of the orders: social divisions in the
Roman republic
Patricians – aristocratic class
Plebians – independent, unprivileged, poorer, and vulnerable
men
Tribunes of the plebs and council of the plebs create plebiscita
8
The Roman conquest of Italy
By 338 B.C.E., Rome had crushed the Latin states in Latium
and overran the remaining Etruscan states in 264 B.C.E.
Devised the Roman Confederation

The Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean (264–133 B.C.E.)
(Slide 1 of 2)
The struggle with Carthage
Hannibal and the Second Punic War
The destruction of Carthage
Final destruction in 146 B.C.E. made a Roman province called
Africa
The eastern Mediterranean
Support of the Greeks brought Romans into conflict with both
Macedonia and the kingdom of the Seleucids
10
The Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean (264–133 B.C.E.)
(Slide 2 of 2)
The nature of Roman imperialism
Conquest of Italy, conflict with Carthage and expansion into the
western Mediterranean, and domination of the Hellenistic
kingdom
Evolution of the Roman army
Fourth century B.C.E.: Four legions of 4,000 – 5,000 men and
300 cavalry
Third century B.C.E.: Twenty-five legions
11
Chronology: The Roman Conquest of Italy and the
MediterraneanEventDatesDefeat of the Latin states340–338
B.C.E.Samnite Wars343–290 B.C.E.Defeat of Greek states in

southern Italy281–267 B.C.E.First Punic War264–241
B.C.E.Second Punic War218–201 B.C.E.Battle of Cannae216
B.C.E.Completion of Roman seizure of Spain206 B.C.E.Battle
of Zama202 B.C.E.Third Punic War149–146
B.C.E.Incorporation of Macedonia as a Roman province148
B.C.E.Destruction of Carthage146 B.C.E.Roman acquisition of
Pergamum133 B.C.E
Table Description: Events and dates during the Roman conquest
of Italy and the Mediterranean.
12
Society and Culture in the Roman World (Slide 1 of 3)
Roman religion
Pantheon of gods and goddesses
Exact performance of ritual crucial to establishing a right
relationship gods
Paterfamilias
The growth of slavery
Common institution throughout the ancient world, but Romans
eventually relied on slave labor
Latifundia
The Roman family
Heart of the Roman social structure and virtually a small state
within the state
The evolution of Roman law
Civil law derived from the Twelve Tables gave way to
corrections and additions by the praetors

The development of literature
Strongly influenced by Greek models – plays, new poetry, and
Roman prose
Roman art
Also dependent on the Greeks for inspiration, Romans excelled
in architecture
Values and attitudes
By nature a conservative people, emphasis shifted toward
individualism and away from collective well-being
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic (133–31 B.C.E.)
(Slide 1 of 2)
Background: social, economic, and political problems
Magistracies and senate controlled by nobiles
Optimates versus populares
Capitalistic agriculture
The reforms of the Gracchi
Land reform bill to reclaim and redistribute public land
Equestrian order
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic (133–31 B.C.E.)
(Slide 2 of 2)
A new role for the Roman Army: Marius and Sulla
Volunteer army
Use of army to seize power
The death of the republic
Jostling for power and civil war
Crassus, Pompey, Julius Caesar

Chronology: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic (Slide
1 of 2)EventDatesReforms of Tiberius Gracchus133
B.C.E.Reforms of Gaius Gracchus123–122 B.C.E.Marius: First
consulship107 B.C.E.Marius: Consecutive consulships104–100
B.C.E.Sulla as dictator82–79 B.C.E.Pompey’s command in
Spain77–71 B.C.E.Campaign of Crassus against Spartacus73–71
B.C.E.First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus)60 B.C.E.
Table Description: Events and corresponding dates for the
decline and fall of the Roman Republic (Part 1).
18
Chronology: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic (Slide
2 of 2)EventDates(s)Caesar in Gaul59–49 B.C.E.Murder of
Crassus by Parthians53 B.C.E.Caesar’s crossing of the
Rubicon49 B.C.E.Caesar named dictator47 B.C.E.End of civil
war45 B.C.E.Assassination of Caesar44 B.C.E.Octavian’s defeat
of Antony at Actium31 B.C.E.
Table Description: Events and corresponding dates for the
decline and fall of the Roman Republic (Part 2).
19
How did the Roman expansion compare to the Persian and
Assyrian expansions?
What are the similarities and differences between Greek and
early Roman religion?

How has the American legal system has been influenced by
Roman law?
Chapter 3
The Civilization of the Greeks
1
Explain how the geography of Greece affected Greek history
Summarize the contributions of Homer and why his work was
used as the basis for Greek education
Identify the chief features of the polis, or city-state
Compare the major city-states of Athens and Sparta
2
Describe the Greek ideal of democracy and the ways in which
the Athenian political system was a democracy
Discuss the effect of the two great fifth century B.C.E. conflicts
– the Persian wars and the Peloponnesian War –- on Greek
civilization

3
Describe the ideals upon which Greek art was based and how
those ideals were expressed
Debate the questions posed by Greek philosophers, as well as
their own responses to these questions
4
Greek history has been shaped by its:
Mountainous terrain: Separated independent Greek communities
from one another
Long seacoast: Enabled contact with outside world; later
establishment of colonies
Minoan Crete
A Bronze Age civilization that used metals in making weapons
Established by 2800 B.C.E.
Not Greek in language or religion
The first Greek state: Mycenae
Flourished between 1600 and 1100 B.C.E.
Warriors who prided themselves on their heroic deeds in battle
The most famous of all their supposed military adventures: the
epic poetry of Homer
Invaded from the north by Greek-speaking people; torched
around 1190 B.C.E

(ca. 1100–ca. 750 B.C.E.) (Slide 1 of 2)
Homer and Homeric Greece
Illiad
Epic poem of Trojan War
The tale of the Greek hero Achilles and how the “wrath of
Achilles” led to disaster
Odyssey
Epic journey of a Greek hero
Tests Odysseus’ heroism until, by both cunning and patience, he
prevails
(ca. 1100–ca. 750 B.C.E.) (Slide 2 of 2)
Homer’s enduring importance
His Iliad and the Odyssey were regarded as authentic history
Used as standard texts for the education of generations of Greek
males’ striving for excellence, called arete
In the Homeric world, aristocratic women were expected to
pursue excellence
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 1 of 5)
The polis
The central institution in Greek life
The acropolis, or hill, was the central point where the citizens
of the polis could assemble for political, social, and religious
activities
A new military system: the Greek way of war
Hoplites, Phalanx

(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 2 of 5)
Colonization and the growth of trade
750 – 550 B.C.E.
Colonization led to the spread of Greek culture throughout the
Mediterranean basin and to increased trade and industry
Tyranny in the Greek polis
Tyrants
Oligarchies
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 3 of 5)
Sparta
Perioikoi and Helots
The new Sparta
Sparta transformed by sixth century B.C.E. to military state
The Spartan state
Led by two kings
Elected a group of five men, the ephors, to oversee the
education of youth and the conduct of all citizens
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 4 of 5)
Athens: The reforms of Solon
Canceled all current land debts
Outlawed new loans based on humans as collateral
Freed people who had fallen into slavery for debts

(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) (Slide 5 of 5)
Athens: The reforms of Cleisthenes
Made the demes the basic units of political life
Laid the foundations for Athenian democracy
By 500 B.C.E., Athens was more united than it had ever been
and was about to assume a more important role in Greek affairs
Chronology: Archaic Greece –SpartaEventDatesConquest of
Messeniaca. 730–710 B.C.E.Beginning of Peloponnesian
Leagueca. 560–550 B.C.E.
archaic Greece in Sparta.
14
Chronology: Archaic Greece – AthensEventDatesSolon’s
reforms594–593 B.C.E.Tyranny of Pisistratusca. 560–556 and
546–527 B.C.E.End of tyranny510 B.C.E.Cleisthenes’s
reformsca. 508–501 B.C.E.
archaic Greece in Athens.
15
of 3)
The challenge of Persia
Darius attacks the mainland Greeks in 490

Xerxes vowed revenge; invaded Greece after the death of Darius
Leonidas at Thermopylae
of 3)
The growth of an Athenian empire in the Age of Pericles
Severed ties with Sparta
Expanded democracy at home and its new empire abroad
The great Peloponnesian War
Sparta and its supporters against the Athenian empire
27 year war lasting from 431 – 405 B.C.E.
of 3)
The decline of the Greek states (404–338 B.C.E.)
The Peloponnesian War weakened the major Greek states
Persians offered financial support to Athens and other Greek
states to oppose Spartan power within Greece itself, thus
beginning a new war that finally ended in 386 B.C.E.
The writing of history
History, the systematic analysis of past events, was a Greek
creation
Herodotus: author of The Persian Wars, a work commonly
regarded as the first real history in Western civilization
Greek drama
Intended to entertain and to educate citizens
Supported by the state

The arts: the classical ideal
The arts of the Western world have been largely dominated by
the artistic standards established by the Greeks of the classical
period
The Greek love of wisdom
Sophists
Rhetoric
The Socratic method
Greek religion
Intricately connected to every aspect of daily life.
Social and practical
Life in classical Athens
Economy: largely agricultural but highly diversified
Lifestyle: simple homes and diets
Family: primary function – to produce new citizens
What important Greek ideals and Greek values are revealed in
this passage from the Iliad?
According to Pericles, what are the ideals of Athenian
democracy?
How did the Greek view of the world shape Greek conceptions
of gender and gender roles?

Chapter 4
The Hellenistic World
Analyze how Alexander was able to amass his empire, and what
its potential impact might have been had he lived longer
Identify the main features of the political and military
organization of the Hellenistic kingdoms, and how these new
political systems differed from those of Greek city-states
Summarize the main social developments in the Hellenistic
world
Describe the achievements in literature, art, science, and
philosophy during the Hellenistic period
Discuss the prominent religions during the Hellenistic period
and what their popularity suggests about Hellenistic society
Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander (Slide 1 of 2)
Macedonia became the chief power in the Greek world by King
Philip II’s reign (359–336 B.C.E.)
Philip instituted military reforms
New phalanx with lighter swords and smaller shields
Infantrymen with longer spears
Strengthened bond between army and leaders

Alexander the Great
Starting at age 20, carried on his father’s dream of invading the
Persian Empire
The conquests of Alexander: from western half of Asia Minor,
Issus, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, to northwestern India
The legacy: was Alexander great?
His military brilliance and promotion of Greek culture vs. his
ruthless, selfish autocratic aspirations
Chronology: Macedonia and the Conquests of
AlexanderEventDatesReign of Philip II359–336 B.C.E.Battle of
Chaeronea; Philip II conquers Greece338 B.C.E.Reign of
Alexander the Great336–323 B.C.E.Alexander invades Asia;
Battle of Granicus River334 B.C.E.Battle of Issus333
B.C.E.Battle of Gaugamela331 B.C.E.Fall of Persepolis, the
Persian capital330 B.C.E.Alexander enters India327
B.C.E.Battle of Hydaspes River326 B.C.E.Death of
Alexander323 B.C.E.
Table description: A table of the major events in the conquest of
Alexander.
6
The World of the Hellenistic Kingdoms (Slide 1 of 3)
Hellenistic monarchies
Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Pergamene, and Seleucid
The threat from the Celts
Sacked Rome 390 B.C.E
Attacked Macedonia early third century B.C.E.
Attacked Asia Minor, but was defeated in 230 B.C.E.

Political and military institutions
Monarchy while retaining democratic government in cities
Phalanx and cavalry continue with addition of war elephants
Hellenistic cities
Urban centers with primarily Greek culture and political
institutions
Economic trends in the Hellenistic world
Continued agrarian patterns
Expanded commerce
New opportunities for women
Primarily those in the upper-class
Management of slaves, property, and making loans
Education: literature, arts, music, athletics
Culture in the Hellenistic World
(Slide 1 of 2)
New directions in literature
Theocritus
Menander
Polybius
Hellenistic art
Moved away from idealism of fifth-century classicism to more
emotional and realistic art

(Slide 2 of 2)
A golden age of science
Conscious separation of science from philosophy
Astronomy: heliocentric view
Geometry: Pi
Philosophy: new schools of thought
Epicureanism
Stoicism
Religion in the Hellenistic World
Mystery religions
Noticeable decline in the vitality of the traditional Greek
Olympian religion
Receptive to the numerous religious cults of the eastern world
Jews in the Hellenistic world
Syncretism
Lived by their own laws and judicial system
Compare and contrast Greek sculpture of the Golden Age with
Hellenistic sculpture, considering aesthetics, styles, and subject
matter
Were Greek scientific gains greater in the Hellenistic period
than in the Classical period? Why or why not?
How did women become more autonomous in the Hellenistic
world?
Chapter 4

The Hellenistic World
Analyze how Alexander was able to amass his empire, and what
its potential impact might have been had he lived longer
Identify the main features of the political and military
organization of the Hellenistic kingdoms, and how these new
political systems differed from those of Greek city-states
Summarize the main social developments in the Hellenistic
world
Describe the achievements in literature, art, science, and
philosophy during the Hellenistic period
Discuss the prominent religions during the Hellenistic period
and what their popularity suggests about Hellenistic society
Macedonia became the chief power in the Greek world by King
Philip II’s reign (359–336 B.C.E.)
Philip instituted military reforms
New phalanx with lighter swords and smaller shields
Infantrymen with longer spears
Strengthened bond between army and leaders
Alexander the Great
Starting at age 20, carried on his father’s dream of invading the

Persian Empire
The conquests of Alexander: from western half of Asia Minor,
Issus, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, to northwestern India
The legacy: was Alexander great?
His military brilliance and promotion of Greek culture vs. his
ruthless, selfish autocratic aspirations
Chronology: Macedonia and the Conquests of
AlexanderEventDatesReign of Philip II359–336 B.C.E.Battle of
Chaeronea; Philip II conquers Greece338 B.C.E.Reign of
Alexander the Great336–323 B.C.E.Alexander invades Asia;
Battle of Granicus River334 B.C.E.Battle of Issus333
B.C.E.Battle of Gaugamela331 B.C.E.Fall of Persepolis, the
Persian capital330 B.C.E.Alexander enters India327
B.C.E.Battle of Hydaspes River326 B.C.E.Death of
Alexander323 B.C.E.
Table description: A table of the major events in the conquest of
Alexander.
6
Hellenistic monarchies
Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Pergamene, and Seleucid
The threat from the Celts
Sacked Rome 390 B.C.E
Attacked Macedonia early third century B.C.E.
Attacked Asia Minor, but was defeated in 230 B.C.E.

Political and military institutions
Monarchy while retaining democratic government in cities
Phalanx and cavalry continue with addition of war elephants
Hellenistic cities
Urban centers with primarily Greek culture and political
institutions
Economic trends in the Hellenistic world
Continued agrarian patterns
Expanded commerce
New opportunities for women
Primarily those in the upper-class
Management of slaves, property, and making loans
Education: literature, arts, music, athletics
(Slide 1 of 2)
New directions in literature
Theocritus
Menander
Polybius
Hellenistic art
Moved away from idealism of fifth-century classicism to more
emotional and realistic art
(Slide 2 of 2)
A golden age of science
Conscious separation of science from philosophy

Astronomy: heliocentric view
Geometry: Pi
Philosophy: new schools of thought
Epicureanism
Stoicism
Religion in the Hellenistic World
Mystery religions
Noticeable decline in the vitality of the traditional Greek
Olympian religion
Receptive to the numerous religious cults of the eastern world
Jews in the Hellenistic world
Syncretism
Lived by their own laws and judicial system
Compare and contrast Greek sculpture of the Golden Age with
Hellenistic sculpture, considering aesthetics, styles, and subject
matter
Were Greek scientific gains greater in the Hellenistic period
than in the Classical period? Why or why not?
How did women become more autonomous in the Hellenistic
world?
ANCIENT ROME TO THE BEGINNING OF EMPIRE
The Latins were an Indo-European speaking Italic people from
central Europe who crossed the Alps around 1500 BCE and
invaded Italy. Attracted by the warm climate, fertile land, they
conquered the native people and settled in central Italy. On the

seven hills overlooking the Tiber River, they founded the city of
Rome on the Palatine Hill.
· The ancient city was built on 7 hills: Palatine, Aventine,
Caelian, Capitoline (religious center), Esquiline, Quirinal,
Viminal
· Note also that the Forum was a public meeting place,
Comitium and Curia housed the citizens’ assembly and the
Senate.
The legend: Romulus and Remus, twin brothers who were
descendants of the gods, orphaned and raised by a she-wolf,
founded the city of Rome in 753 BCE.
Life among the Latins
· Agricultural people: farming and cattle herding
· Maintained close family ties, with the father exercising
absolute authority (concept of pater familias)
· Worshipped tribal gods (Jupiter the chief god; Mars, god of
war, Neptune, god of the sea, Venus, goddess of love)
· Defended Rome against frequent attacks
· Cremated their dead
· 40 cities joined in the Alban League confederation an informal
military alliance serving religious and political purposes.
· Plebeian men and men of families belonging to the gentes
(clans) participated in the curia or village council
· Heads of households belonged to the Senate, selected kings –
who were essentially religious leaders.

· Clientage was a way for patrician and plebeian families to
extend their power
Traditional Roman values and legends/myths
· Practicality, courage, hard work, honor
· Simplicity and steadfastness (tenacity?)
· Cincinnatus, Horatius, Romulus & Remus, Aeneas, Lucretia
Western Mediterranean to 509 BCE
· These people experienced civilization later than the Egyptians,
Mesopotamian, and Greeks.
· Around 800 BCE Phoenician traders and colonists established
a chain of trading posts along the coast of North Africa and on
the islands of the Mediterranean. Carthage (near modern day
Tunis, Tunisia) with its harbor and massive fortifications
became the hub of the Phoenician western Empire. The
Phoenicians were successful in integrating colonies into an
empire because of commercial and agricultural wealth. They
had a mercenary army, separated from the civil authority and
which drew troops from many lands, so much of the political
power was in the hands of the merchant aristocracy.
Carthaginians adopted Phoenician gods such as Baal Hammon
and Tanit. The sacrifice of first-born sons was a common
practice.
· The Greeks also established colonies in Sicily and Italy
around the same time spurring a rivalry between the two
Mediterranean powers.
Rome: From the Etruscans to Independence 750-500 BCE)
750 BCE Rome was captured by its northern neighbors, the
Etruscans. Contributions to the Latins/Romans were (included):
· Construction of buildings, roads, and city walls and made
Rome a major city

· Making metal weapons
· Application of new military techniques including naval
strength and military alliances. Around 474 BCE their fleet was
destroyed and a period of decline followed.
· Etruscan religion brought underground gods and fertility cults
· Engineering – using hydraulic systems to drain swamps
· They made wine
· They had slaves who labored in mines and on farms to support
aristocratic landlords.
· Women played a central role in urban political and public life.
· Two-fold division of Roman society sharpened class
distinctions (patrician/plebeian)
· Political rights and military duty came to reside exclusively
with the landowners (classis) whose richest and oldest members
monopolized the new centuriate assembly. This reorganized
political and military structure favored the conservative and
wealthy patricians
· Class division between the patricians and plebeians grew when
the plebeians were denied a political role.
· In 509 BCE the last Etruscan king: Tarquin the Proud, was
overthrown and the Roman Republic established.
The Early Roman Republic
· Kings were replaced by consuls during the early period
wherein a patrician led oligarchy dominated the Republic’s
institutions and was characterized by the tradition of 2 men
sharing the power of the office and the imperium the supreme
power to command, administer law, and execute the condemned.

Other key officials included the dictator who had absolute
power to deal with crises, the praetors who administered justice
and defended Rome in the absence of the consuls, quaestors
(treasurers) and censors who negotiated public works contracts,
filled Senate vacancies, and assessed taxes.
· The Roman republic at first was an aristocracy, with power in
the hands of wealthy landowners – the patricians. Only
patricians could serve as consuls and as members of the
hereditary Senate which passed laws, approved appointments,
and controlled foreign affairs. Largely excluded from
government were the rest of the Roman people – mainly small
farmers and city workers known as plebeians. Traditionally –
the patricians traced their ancestries back to the founding of
Rome, the plebeians – were considered new men.
· The patricians controlled political institutions through the
cursus honorum. This antagonized the plebeian order which
established an alternative political structure responsible for
ruling the plebeians. The Plebeians refused to perform military
service forcing the patricians to compromise by recognizing the
plebeian claims to political power through the creation of the
Council of the Plebs. This conflict between the patricians and
plebeians is known as the Struggle of Orders
· The Plebeians clamored for democratic reforms – and over the
course of 200 years they gained the right to elect tribunes
empowered to protect plebeian interests by vetoing actions of
the consuls and the Senate. The Plebeians also enacted laws in
people’s assemblies, and gained the right to hold all government
offices including that of consul and senator.
· The first plebeian gain is the codification of Roman law via
the 12 Tables which prevented judges who were from the
patrician order, from twisting unwritten laws to favor their own
class.

· United by imperial ambition, plebeians and patricians both
benefited from military campaigns that brought all of Italy
under Roman control by 264 BCE. Successful military
campaigns resulted in a distribution of lands to plebeians yet
poverty and landlessness remain perennial problems in Rome.
Gradually when the differences became strong again, the
willingness to compromise faded, and Rome was beset by civil
wars which destroyed the Roman republic.
Roman Control of Italy (340-270 BCE)
The Romans conquered the Italian peninsula: They
overwhelmed the Latins, the Samnites, and Etruscans. They
drove back the Gauls in the north, and they captured the Greek
colonies in the south. It was able to conquer and unite Italy due
to:
· Powerful armies of citizen soldiers who felt responsible to
their republic. They did not fight for a despot, but for their own
freedom, land, and government. They were well trained,
disciplined, and the Roman legion was the most effective
fighting force of the time.
· The Romans had the ability to move troops – the Apennine
Mountains ran north-south through Italy and did not obstruct
troop movements.
· Romans secured the friendship and allegiance of conquered
people by granting them privileges of partial or full citizenship,
gaining from these allies troops and support for Roman foreign
policy.
Rome gains control of the Western Mediterranean (264-146
BCE)
· Rome’s chief rival was Carthage – the Phoenician founded city
in North Africa which had become a power commercial empire.
It took 3 wars to defeat Carthage, known as the Punic Wars

· The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) was fought chiefly on
Sicily. Rome’s citizen soldiers eventually defeated the
Carthaginian mercenaries, and Rome annexed Sicily, Sardinia,
and Corsica. Both sides regroups for another round of
hostilities, with Carthage acquiring part of Spain, and Rome
consolidated its position by conquering the Gauls extending
their rule north from the Po River to the Alps.
· The Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) saw Hannibal,
Carthage’s general lead an army from Spain, across the Alps
into Italy. He won numerous victories, climaxed by the Battle
of Cannae, but he was unable to seize the city of Rome.
Gradually the tide of battle turned to Rome’s favor and the
Romans destroyed an army sent to reinforce Hannibal,
conquered Spain, and invaded North Africa. Hannibal withdrew
his army from Italy to go to defend Carthage, but at the Battle
of Zama, was defeated. Carthage’s Spanish provinces were
annexed by Rome, and Carthage was reduced to a second-rate
power.
· Why did Rome win this second series of battles (Punic War
II)?
· Superior wealth and military power
· Loyalty of most of its allies
· Rise of capable generals such as Fabius (the Delayer because
he did not commit his troops to decisive battle in Italy believing
that time would be in Rome’s interests so he merely harassed
the enemy) and Scipio (called Africanus) because he triumphed
over Hannibal in North Africa.
· The Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) was fought due to
demagoguery of Cato, a Roman Senator who ended all his
speeches, no matter the subject, with “Carthage must be

destroyed”. Rome finally attacked and destroyed the city. In
this particular case, you can see a clear example of what goes
around, comes around! as the same thing will happen to Rome!)
Rome conquers the Eastern Mediterranean
· Following the Second Punic War, Rome conquered Macedonia
including Greece, Syria, including most of southwestern Asia.
Egypt recognizing Rome’s might, submitted to Roman
domination of the Eastern Mediterranean. In 30 BCE Rome
annexed Egypt.
Effects of the Mediterranean Conquests on Rome
· Introduction to Greek Culture.
· Romans enthusiastically accepted the advanced Hellenistic
culture and shipped Greek treasures, books, statues, vases to
Rome
· They enslaved educated Greeks to serve as tutors, actors,
writers, and scientists
· They imitated Greek culture extensively
· Roman armies may have conquered Greece, but Greek culture
conquered Rome
· Some Romans were able to acquire huge estates in the
provinces and in Italy. Some of these public lands were seized
illegally.
· Merchants and businessmen prospered by filling army
contracts, buying booty, supplying slaves and by trading with
the provinces
· Government officials in the provinces amassed huge fortunes
at the expense of the subject people
· Hard work, discipline, and patriotism – Roman virtues, all but
disappeared
· Conquests ruin small farmers and workers
· These small farmers and workers could not compete with the
slave labor employed by huge estates and industry.
· Unable to pay their debts, farmers abandoned their lands and
migrated to the cities where city workers suffered serious

unemployment
· To gain the support of landless farmers and unemployed
workers, Roman politicians sponsored free government
programs of bread and circuses
· Conquests changed the character of the Army
· The small farmer had been the backbone of the Roman army
and as he disappeared, the nature of the army changed. Citizen-
soldiers, loyal to the state were replaced by professional
soldiers fighting for pay and booty, loyal to their own
commanders
By 146 BCE: Rome controlled Greece, Dalmatia, Italy, southern
Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and dominated both Syria and Egypt.
In the west Rome governed through former magistrates or
proconsuls; in the East, Rome ruled through existing local
rulers.
From Republic to Dictatorship
By the end of the second century BCE the common people were
demanding economic and political reform. The aristocracy,
which controlled the Senate, bitterly opposed measures that
threatened their wealth and power. The spirit of compromise
that was seen in early Rome was dead, peaceful reform failed.
A series of civil wars ensued, with rival Roman generals
battling for supremacy. The conflict, lasting more than 100
years, wrecked the Roman Republic and its many democratic
features. In 27 BCE the Republic was replaced by an absolute
monarchy: The Roman Empire
· The Gracci Brothers and attempts at peaceful reform (133-121
BCE)
· Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius Gracchus, nobles who
favored the common people were elected as tribunes
· They obtained laws in the people’s assembly that would
recover lands wrongfully seized by the nobles and distribute

these lands to the landless Romans
· Gaius further proposed to weaken the stronghold of
aristocratic power, the Senate. Both brothers were killed in
riots led by senatorial opponents of reform
Gee I wonder if we should worry about history repeating itself
in our country today?
· Civil War: Marius vs Sulla
· Beginning in 86 BCE two generals: Marius (a popular leader)
and Sulla (a senatorial leader) vied for control of Rome. Their
clashes killed thousands of soldiers and civilians. Sulla
prevailed and temporarily restored senatorial power
· Civil War: Caesar vs Pompey
· In 60 BCE Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus (a wealth
noble) formed the First Triumvirate. This alliance enabled the 3
men to dominate Rome. Caesar became a general and through
military victories in Gaul won his army’s loyalty. His fame was
spread by his book: Commentaries on the Gallic War.
· In 49BCE the Senate – fearful of Caesar’s popularity and
power, ordered him to disband his army. He refused and taking
an irrevocable step, crossed the Rubicon River and invaded the
senatorial portion of Italy. Pompey’s senatorial army was
defeated, and Caesar became dictator of Rome.
· Caesar planned to: establish a stable government, reform
provincial rule, provide land for poor people, and beautify the
city of Rome. He lacked time, in 44 BCE a group of
conspirators envying his power and some hoping to restore the
republic, assassinated Caesar at the Ides of March.

· Civil War: Octavian vs Antony
· Civil war broke out again after Caesar’s assassination
· Brutus and Cassius – the chief conspirators we defeated by
forces led by Mark Antony and Caesar’s grand-nephew
Octavian.
· In the final conflict for power, Octavian defeated Antony at
the naval Battle of Actium 31 BCE. This battle of the Greek
coast ended the era of civil wars. Octavian became the absolute
ruler of the Roman Empire
The Effects on Republican Civilization
Simple values of piety, hard work, simplicity, and respect for
authority led the Roman Republic to greatness
· But Roman institutions proved incapable (or unwilling) to
change to meet the needs of a new imperial world power and to
adapt to new values that accompanied Rome’s newfound wealth,
and its exposure to Hellenistic culture
· Farmers which had formed the backbone of victorious legions
through dedication to duty, preparation, and discipline were
impoverished by constant warfare instead of enriching the
farmer and soldier. Prolonged and distant wars prevented the
farmer from tilling his soil and harvesting crops forcing the
farmer-soldier to mortgage his land to aristocratic
moneylenders. As the aristocrats got wealthier, the farmer-
soldier lost his farm and thereby lost his major qualification for
military service.
· The Roman family – governed by the pater familias. This
absolute power governed property, could command the death of
unwanted newborns, adoption of sons to be heirs. Slaves were
not only property but considered as family members so even if

freed carried obligation to the pater familias. Women lived
under legal guardianship of fathers, then husbands, but exerted
indirect power through household management, the moral
education of children, and control of their doweries.
· The public role of Roman women increased as territorial
expansion occurred. Fathers increasingly refused to transfer
their authority over daughters to their sons in law and wives
became independent following their fathers’ death. Marriage,
an important factor in political alliances, often ended in divorce
as fathers sought different political allies. Roman housing
changed from simple buildings to larger more elaborate ones.
The housing situation of the poor worsened as many of them
lived in cramped, multi-stories apartment in the subdura.
· Roman Religion
· Household gods were responsible for every aspect of daily
live. Both men and women had personal powers.
· Power, piety, and duty reinforced Roman virtues of order and
authority.
· Public worship was the responsibility of state-sponsored
colleges of aristocratic priests who were responsible for
divination and for public sacrifices.
· Imperial conquest expanded the diversity of Roman deities as
Romans gave foreign gods family characteristics and quickly
absorbed them into their religious life.
· Some religions – like the cult of Dionysus (Bacchus)
threatened traditional Roman values and thus were persecuted
by Roman officials
· Remember: religious belief could be personal, but observation

of the Roman religious traditions was expected as a civic duty.
· Newfound wealth and political corruption accompanied
imperial expansion as many provincial officials were corrupt.
Cato the Elder (mentioned in the Punic Wars above) often saw
himself as the defender of traditional Roman values, while at
the same time, took advantage of the newer, entrepreneurial
opportunities provided by the changing times.
In the next portion of these lecture commentaries, we’ll look at
Rome during its 500 years of Empire.
Roman Empire 27BC – 476CE
· Lasted about 500 years
· Was a military dictatorship
· Some emperors dominated the army, others were puppets of
the army
· Some devoted time to Empire’s welfare, others sought
personal advantages
· Only a few were qualified to meet imperial problems
Outstanding Emperors
· Augustus (27 BC – 14 CE) [aka OCTAVIAN]
· Accepted title Augustus meaning sacred mystery from the
Senate
· He was considered just and capable
· He maintained peace
· Provided stable government

· Reformed provincial administration
· Established fair taxation
· Developed trade and industry
· Encouraged science, art, and literature
· Constructed many roads and buildings
· He transformed Rome from a city to bricks to a city of marble
· During his reign Jesus was born in the Roman province of
Judea.
· This reign marked a 200 year period of peace and progress
known as the PAX ROMANA
· Claudius (41-54 CE)
· Established Roman authority in the southern part of Britain
· Promoted public works in Italy
· Vespasian (69-79 CE)
· Dispatched army headed by his son Titus to Palestine to
suppress Hebrew revolt, destroying Jerusalem, and expelled
most Jews beginning what is known as the disaspora.
· Trajan (98-117 CE)
· Expanded the empire (through conquest) to its greatest
territorial extent. The most important region – Dacia – which is
modern day Romania
· Britain & Spain, and present day Morocco in the West, to
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent in the East with the Danube

River as a northern boundary.
· Hadrian (117-138 CE)
· Built defensive walls in northern Britain and in Central
Europe to repel barbarian tribes (Germanic) trying to enter the
empire
· Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)
· Conscientious and high-minded ruler concerned with the
people’s welfare.
· A stoic philosopher, wrote the book Meditations.
· His death marks the end of the Pax Romana
· Diocletian (284-305 CE)
· Followed an period of incompetent rule and internal strife
· Divided the empire into East and West, each portion ruled
separately
· Established a system of succession to the throne to prevent
civil war
· His death was marked with renewed civil wars for
control/power
· Last emperor to actively persecute Christians
· Constantine (312-337 CE)
· Reunited empire by military force
· Moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople)

· Issued the Edict of Milan (313) ending persecution of
Christians (story of apparition (with this sign + conquer) and
battle of Milvian Bridge)
· Converted to Christianity on his deathbed
The not-so great emperors of the Pax Romana:
Tiberius (14-37 CE)
Caligula (37-41 CE)
Nero (54-68 CE)
Titus (69-79 CE)
Domitian (81-96 CE)
Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)
*Commodus (180-192 CE)
Why would these names be on this list?
Barbaric Tribes Destroy the Roman Empire
1. Germanic (Teutonic) Tribes – 1st – 4th C CE
primitive, warlike
lived in Central and eastern Europe

attracted to Roman empire by fertile land, wealth, and
advanced civilization
early efforts to enter empire were thwarted by Roman
troops
Rome permitted some Germanic people to settle in the
empire and enlisted some soldiers into its army
2. Huns (4th and 5th C CE)
savage invaders from central Asia
caused many Germanic tribes to flee into the empire
Attila (scourge of God) led Huns in ravaging the empire until
the Roman/Germanic coalition at the Battle of Chalons (451
CE).
The Huns weakened Rome militarily and hastened its downfall
3. Germanic Tribes (4th and 5th C CE)
Full scale migrations of Germanic tribesmen into the empire
could not be stopped by the Roman government
These tribes eventually established kingdoms in the empire:
Visigoths in Spain, Ostrogoths in Italy, the Vandals in North
Africa, Franks in Gaul, and the Angles and Saxons in Britain
4. In 476 CE Germanic tribes overthrew the last Emperor in

Rome. This event ended the western Roman empire, but not the
Eastern (Byzantine) empire.
Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire (West)
Roman weakness, not Germanic strength)
a. Political Reasons
Dictatorial government inefficient and corrupt, and did not
command loyalty of the people
Vast empire with primitive transportation and communication,
could not be governed efficiently from one central city
Rivalry over succession resulted in destructive civil wars
b. Economic Reasons
Small farmers had abandoned their lands to become workers on
large estates. No longer independent, they lost the incentive to
improve farming methods or increase production
Self-sufficiency of large estates hampered trade and curtailed
industry, causing economic decline
Heavy often unjust taxation burdened the people and destroyed
their ambition to work and progress
Widespread use of slaves in industry and agriculture caused
great unemployment among the plebeians
c. Social Reasons
People interested mainly in luxury and survival
Ideals of patriotism, service, morality almost vanished

Sharp class distinctions existed = upper classes were wealthy
and educated, lower classes were poor and ignorant
Cities initially centers of culture and industry declined as
people fled to the rural regions
d. Military Reasons
Warlike spirit of early pagan Rome weakened by Christian
teachings of peace and universal love
Roman armies included Germanic mercenaries of uncertain
loyalty
The armies considering themselves as masters of state, not its
servants, often chose the emperors and determined government
policy
Roman Contributions to Civilization
1. The Pax Romana
a. For more than 200 years, Roman military might enforced in
the Mediterranean world the Roman peace. This was a period of
time of social cohesion on an international scale.
b. Trade and commerce expanded, arts and sciences thrived
c. Greco-Roman (classical civilization) reached everywhere in
the empire.
2. Roman Law
a. Developed bodies of law on business matters, family
relationships, individual rights, and international affairs.

b. Justinian, emperor at Constantinople 527-565 CE directed a
codification of the Roman laws – Justinian’s Code, which
influenced the legal systems of Western Europe and through
Western Europe, the United States
c. Law was intended to be impartial and humane. Two of its
principles: All are equal before the law, and, Accused persons
are guaranteed legal protection. Forced confessions are invalid.
3. Architecture
a. Romans constructed military roads, aqueducts, bridges, and
marble buildings – some are still in use today.
b. They used the arch, dome, and column effectively
c. The Coliseum a famous stone amphitheater was erected
during the reign of Vespasian
4. Language
a. Latin is the root of the Romance languages: French, Italian,
Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian
b. It is the source of perhaps ½ of the words in the English
language
5. Literature
a. Cicero (106-43 BCE) – father of Latin prose wrote on ethical,
religious, and political subjects including famous orations in
defense of the Roman republic
b. Vergil (70-19 BCE) – wrote the epic poem The Aeneid) about
the adventures of Aeneas whose descendants founded Rome. He
extolled Rome’s greatness

c. Horace (65-8 BCE) – Odes poetry about every day life. He
praised the early Roman virtues of simplicity, courage, and
reverence
d. Seneca (3BC-65CE) – stoic philosopher, wrote essays on
morals
6. Historical Writing
Livy (59BC-17CE) wrote an encyclopaedic history about Rome
from its founding to the Augustan Age. He deplored the decay
of early Roman virtues and the fall of the Republic
Plutarch (100 CE) compared Roman and Greek heroes in his
book of biographies Parallel Lives
Tacitus (55-120 CE) wrote Germanica describing life among the
Germanic barbarians
7. Science
Romans were practical – they specialized in sanitation, public
health, and engineering. The research scientists of the Roman
empire were generally – NON ROMAN
Galen (131-201 CE) a Greek physician who wrote books
summarizing the ancient world’s medical knowledge. He
performed experiments on the nervous and circulatory systems
Ptolemy (2nd century CE) Greek astronomer who taught
erroneously that the earth was the center of the universe, and
that the sun revolves about the earth. We know this is not true
through the writings of men like Copernicus (16th C CE)
PAGE
Page 1 of 21

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR WRITTEN ASSIGNMENTS,
TESTS
Description
I accept a variety of written assignments. This attachment to
the syllabus is to help you to prepare written assignments for
this class.
Mechanics of all papers (including take home exams)
· All papers must be typed! Font size should be 12 – not larger,
definitely not smaller
· Put your name on the paper, and class section especially if you
expect to submit it via attachment!
· I do not object to double-side printing for multiple page
papers
· Learn to use page numbers!
· I do not object to single spaced papers as long as you double
space between paragraphs, or questions!
· Charts may illustrate discussion points – but if you lift one
from another source – cite the source. The same goes for
photographs, and maps!
· Plagiarism is a problem – please remember to cite the source
for information you include in your papers. Wikipedia is not an
acceptable academic source! Textbooks should not be used
primarily as sources for research papers.
· Folders cost students money! Invest in a good stapler to
fasten multiple page assignments! Do not expect the instructor
to provide it for you!
· I do not object to humor (when appropriate) nor personal
opinion when it is backed by legitimate authority!
· Spell check, grammar check are useful utilities. Writing a
paper, letting it sit a day or two, and then going back to re-read
and edit is also an admirable habit!
Short Response Papers (1-3 pages)
· I expect an understanding of the question/topic posed
· You will research and defend a position on this paper, citing

sources and presenting an objective and academic response!
· Wikipedia and similar websites are not accepted academic
sources. Likewise I will encourage you to refer to the text book
and encyclopaedia only for background information, but not as
the primary source of information for any paper!
· I expect 1-3 sources for many short response papers.
A RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT
This is a project culminating in a type-written paper/report
(with maps, and tables (if required) and proper reference
citations for all websites and sources visited. You may also
need to prepare a power point presentation of this research
assignment especially if you are taking the course for honors
credit. Length may be determined by the format which you
undertake to present:
· an investigative paper with a thesis to prove (for which you
will need to discuss 3 examples/factors), or
· a descriptive paper showing the development of the issue you
are discussing, or
· an appropriate lesson plan for your use as an instructor/teacher
at a specific grade level, or
· a critical book review on an approved topic appropriate to the
time period being studied.
I anticipate at least:
· 8 - 12 pages of text, as well as map(s), charts (if any), and
bibliography.
Format, grammar, and spelling errors will be considered in the
grade calculation, as will lateness. You must use, correctly,
any acceptable and uniformly applied method of footnoting.
· 3 to 5 sources. It is best to use a variety of sources, including
books, journals, periodicals, and on-line sources. See note
above about textbook and encyclopaedia!
Issues or Topics – here’s a suggested list to help jog your
imaginations and interest:
Select a topic proper to your academic interest and the class you

are enrolled in. Some topics that you might consider include:
personalities, events, diffusion of
ideas/people/inventions/diseases such as democracy,
fundamentalism (not the same as traditionalism vs modernism),
secularism, political affiliation, political correctness,
immigration, refugees, peace-keeping forces, terrorism, any
conflict from the mid-1900s to the present such as: conflicts in
Africa, South African apartheid, Southwest Asia, the Balkans,
SARS, AIDS, mad-cow or other food related diseases, fuel price
issues such as locations of fuel reserves, origins or
consumption, birthrates, cell phones, faxes, computers. Note –
this is not an exhaustive listing of topics. Current topics may
involve the world economic crisis, the rising destruction of rain
forests, Islamic fundamentalism, western style constitutions for
Islamic countries, divided Cyprus, violence in Western Europe
threats to security/safety, political trends in the US (including
NAFTA etc, hybrid fuel powered cars), the expansion of
countries with nuclear capabilities and of course the raging
conflict over terrorism, Afghanistan, and Iraq since 9/11, effects
of any natural disaster. These are just examples, you may select
any topic of interest to you – but all topics will be approved by
the instructor. Request/approval can be done as a brief email
using either of the following email addresses: [email protected]
or [email protected] . You may also discuss the progress of
your paper with me using these email addresses.
Form of ReferenceCitations
I prefer consistent use of any regular footnoting format – you
may use traditional footnoting (University of Chicago) or MLA.
A list of references (minimum of 5, at least 2 of which must be
from books, journals/periodicals – not encyclopaedia) will be
included as the Bibliography at the end of your paper. The use
of footnotes/end notes/parenthetical citations is required. The
number of footnotes (or parenthetical inserts) will vary from
paper to paper depending upon how much you rely on the
sources. Plagiarism is a serious academic offense, and will be

penalized. Remember for websites and sources consulted via
the internet, you must include the entire source address and the
date you checked the source. Again, WIKIPEDIA is not an
acceptable source.
About the maps/tables you include in your papers. I would
prefer you design your own tables, and as much as possible,
also your own maps. If you are talented enough to use the
computer drawing tools and highlighting, by all means use
them. If you need to copy specific maps/tables, be sure to
footnote the source.
Reliable sources for population and political topics: Population
Reference Bureau, the US Government Census, US State
Department, US Commerce Department, National Geographic
Magazine, and the United Nations websites are good initial sites
for reliable statistics or they can provide reliable links.
The final draft of the paper will include:
a) title page with your title, the course number, your name
b) first paragraph should include topic/thesis statement
c) body of the paper should be your descriptive history,
examples/factors, maps and charts if any
d) conclusion may be your personal conclusion provided that it
logically follows the discussion (c)
e) any supporting material you wish to include with the paper
f) bibliography/list of references
I prefer the paper to be typed, 12 font. It should be double
spaced and fastened with a staple.
SAMPLE GUIDELINES FOR CRITICAL BOOK or Movie
REVIEW
Note that the examples cited below follow from the sample book
being reviewed and you should modify your own writing
according to your specific circumstance!

Preliminary Considerations
· First, one must understand that a critical review is not a book
report (a summary of the contents of a book) or recounting of
the plot of a movie/play. A critical review is a vehicle for
examining and discussing issues the book/movie itself raises or
fails to raise. One writes a critical review for the benefit of
those who might not presently have time to read/view the
book/movie but who nevertheless need to learn more about its
basic approach should they desire to read or study it at a future
time.
· The job of the book reviewer is to inform these readers
concerning any merits and/or shortcomings the book may have.
From information based on a well-written review, the reader
may conclude that this book is either indispensable or
inconsequential.
Components of a Critical Book or Movie Review
· Give complete bibliographical information at the top of the
page (title, author, publisher, place of publication, date of
publication, number of pages, and name of reviewer).
Use the following format (sample):
Toward Rediscovering the Old Testament, by Walter C. Kaiser,
Jr.
Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987. 250 pages. Reviewed by: your
name.
· Briefly state the reason this book/movie was chosen for
review. State the author's credentials (education, place of
employment, previous achievements, etc.) as a preface to giving
the book a serious hearing. Biographical information about the
author should be included only as it demonstrates the author’s
competency to write the book. Within the context of the paper,

do not use titles (Dr., Rev., etc.). In most brief reviews, you
will likely need to limit the introduction to one or two
paragraphs.
· Briefly (in one or two well-written sentences) summarize the
thesis of the book/plot of the movie.
This is a crucial step because the thesis/plot contains the reason
why the author produced this particular work (there may be
dozens on the market with similar subject matter). The thesis
will state the author's basic presuppositions and approach. The
critical nature of the review will then grow from the reviewer's
conclusion that the work does or does not achieve the author's
stated purpose.
· The main body of a critical review will be concerned with
"thesis development." That is, did the author achieve the stated
purpose? In this section the reviewer will inspect each of the
chapters/scenes of the work to see how the thesis/plot is (or is
not) developed. If the author makes progress and develops the
thesis convincingly, providing adequate information and
statistical data, the reviewer says so, providing concrete
examples and citing their page numbers in the text. Given the
limited amount of space in a brief book review, footnotes
should not be utilized. Quotations or ideas taken directly from
the text should be followed parenthetically by the page number
of the quotation. The abbreviation for page(s) (p/pp) should not
be used.
Example:
Rainer argues that evangelistic churches should focus on
reaching youth (20). Indeed, he writes, “Many churches fail to
recognize that adolescence is a critical time of receptivity to the
gospel” (21).
· If the thesis is poorly developed or if the examples are
inadequate to support the assertions of the author, the reviewer
will point this out as well. Most critical book reviews will

contain both praise and criticism, carefully weighed and
balanced against one another.
· Remember the purpose of a critical book review is not to
provide a summary of the book. You may assume that the
professor and the grader know the contents of the book.
Questions the reviewer will seek to answer in this section might
include:
· Is there an adequate, consistent development of the author's
stated thesis? Why or why not?
· What is the author’s purpose, i.e., what does he/she hope to
accomplish through this book? Does the author accomplish the
purpose? If so, how does he/she do so? If not, why not?
· Does the author approach the subject with any biases, i.e., do
the author’s theological, experiential, philosophical,
denominational, or cultural perspectives
influence his/her conclusions?
· Does the author properly support his/her thesis? Does the
author adequately consider and refute opposing viewpoints? Is
the work limited in application to specific factors ? Is the work
relevant to contemporary culture?
· Does the author have to resort to suppression of contrary
evidence in order to make the thesis credible (slanting)? If so,
what additional evidence would weaken the case?
· Is the thesis sound but marred by a flawed procedure?
· Is the author's case proved, or would another thesis have been
more appropriately chosen?
· Finally, a summary section should be attached. How does this

work differ from other treatments of the same subject matter?
What is unique and valuable about this approach as opposed to
the others? Would the reviewer recommend this book/film
above others? Why or why not? This final summary should
include the major strengths and weaknesses of the work and
evaluate its merit for readers who may be interested in that
particular field of inquiry. Your primary purpose in this section
is to respond both positively and negatively to the book’s
contents and presentation. Needless to say, this response should
be more in-depth than, “This book is a good book that should be
recommended reading for everyone.” On the other hand, “This
book is a lousy book not worth reading” is also inadequate.
Central to this is the basic question of whether or not the author
has achieved the book's stated purpose.
Answer questions such as:
• What are the strengths of the work, i.e., what contributions
does the work make?
• Why should a person read/view this work?
• What did you learn from this work?
• How might you apply the lessons of this work in your
profession?
· Would you recommend the book to others? Why, or why not?
Do not allow your response to this question to become lengthy
(for this paper is not primarily an evaluation of your
circumstance), but do make some application.
Throughout your critique, be specific in your evaluations. Do
not just tell the reader about the story line; tell and show the
reader with concrete examples from the work. As previously
suggested, include page numbers when making specific
reference to the book, or scenes in the movie.
Your final copy of the book or movie review will include:
1. The bibliography citation for the book
2. Information about the author (credentials)

3. General theme(s) in the text
4. Discussion on salient points in the author’s argument
5. Evaluation on your part on whether the author’s thesis was
confirmed (validated by real world events). Obviously, you may
disagree with the writer’s thesis, philosophy, ideology!
· The length of the review should be between five and seven
pages, double-spaced.
· Style Issues for a Critical Book Review
Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and
Dissertations (7th ed.) is the accepted standard for style issues.
The following guidelines are included to counter common style
errors:
· Utilize this suggested outline to guide your book review, but
do not include the specific subheadings (“Bibliographical
Entry,” “Summary of the Book,” etc.) in the essay. The brevity
of the review demands a smooth flow from one section to
another without including the subheadings.
· Use first-person sparingly; however, you may use “I” when
referring to your opinion of a text.
· Avoid contractions in formal writing.
· Use active voice as much as possible.
· Be clear and concise. A brief review allows no room for
wandering from your objective.
· Use your spell-checker, but do not trust it. A spell-check will
not catch the error in such sentences as, “The whole church
voted too pass the amendment.” Use your eyes as well as your
spell-checker.
· Proofread your paper.
· Finish the paper, and proof it. Put it aside, and proof it again
at a later time. If you do not catch your errors, someone else
will.

Common Writing Errors
· ‘s does not make a word a plural construction
· It’stranslates as: it is. The possessive pronoun is: its
· In academic papers, avoid the use of contractions, and words
like however
· Whereis not the past tense of the verb to be: were
· Affect is an action word – a verb
· Effect is the result of an action
· Know proper nouns – words which should be capitalized.
When referring to the chambers or branches of government:
House of Representatives, The Senate, The Capitol, The
Supreme Court, The White House – these terms are normally
capitalized.
· B.C.E (Before the Common Era) has replaced B.C. (Before
Christ) in contemporary, politically correct usage. Both of these
terms follow the numerical date. )
· C.E. (Common Era) has replaced A.D. (Anno Domini – year of
the Lord) in politically correct jargon. And if you opt to use
A.D. – remember that it precedes the numerical date.
· Homonyms often create problems with spell check – especially
if they are spelled correctly.
· Know the difference betweenthan and then
· There, Their, They’re – all have different meanings and usage

· The 1960s, 1970s, 1980s – get the picture?
· When you copy a picture, map, chart – always cite the source
· Whether is not always followed by or not
· You have the ability to italicize on many word processing
programs. This will allow you to avoid underscoring book titles,
and to emphasize direct quotes in the text
· Altermeans to change, altar is a location of sacrifice!
· Allotmeans to portion out, a lotmeans much, many!
· Allowedmeans to permit; aloudcorresponds to volume, ability
to hear something!
· Proper spelling of the Muslim holy book is: Qur’an, never
Koran
· Ledis the past-tense of to lead. Lead can be an active verb,
and it can also refer to the contents of a pencil
· Apart generally means a separation. A partcan imply
inclusion among other things.
· Certainty can be emphasized by the word definitely. In recent
terms students are confusing definitely with another term:
defiantly which does not have the same meaning!
· Know the difference between accept and except
· To, Too, Two have different uses and meanings!
· Our vs Are – one is a plural pronoun, the other is a copulative
verb!
List to be continued
26 February 2020
Page 1 of 7
Greek Columns
Everything You Need to Know

The Three Orders or Classes
There are three orders or classes of Greek Columns. The orders
or classes are
Doric
Ionic
Corinthian

Doric Columns
Doric Columns were first introduced in Greece and colonies in
Southern Italy.
The style of the column is plain. The column has a grooved
shaft . The table or the capital is plain. It is the only type of
column that doesn’t have an extra base part.
The Doric Column is sometimes associated with masculinity
because it is the strongest of all of the orders of columns.

Ionic Columns
Ionic Columns are more elaborate than the Doric Order.
The columns are slimmer and the capital is decorated with
scroll or a volute pattern.
Style of column is found in Eastern Greece.

Corinthian Columns
Found in Roman architecture
Corinthian Columns are the most elaborate of all the orders.
The capital is decorated with acanthus leaves.

Works Cited
AncientGreece.com. United Press, 2008.
Web. 23 Apr. 2011
About.com. The New York Times Company, 2010.
Web. 22 Apr. 2011

Western Civilization Lecture 1
Traits of Civilizations
Rise of Cities
Note the importance of Agriculture
Growth of Government
To organize and regulate human activity

Provide smooth interaction between individuals and groups
Role of Religion
Social Structure
Monarch
Upper class (priests, government officials, military)
Free people: farmers, artisans, craftsmen
Slaves
Evidence of Trade
Writing
Artistic activity
Painting/sculpting
Question: Do you feel that any one trait can be eliminated and
a group still be considered civilized? Why/Why not?
Examples!
Traits of Civilizations
· These characteristics are generally established by those who
have them and consider them essential to be considered
civilized.
· Being civilized implies some aspects of culture, which is a
human based activity which is learned by members of a group.
· The ancient Chinese considered themselves as the center of

civilization in particular the more civilized you were the closer
you were to the emperor. The farther away from the emperor
you were the less civilized and more barbaric you were
considered to be.
· Some ancient cultures looked upon foot covering as a means
of judging how/ whether you were civilized or barbaric.
· Rise of Cities
· But before the rise of cities can take place, there must be some
improvements in agriculture/technology to release some
population from the need to hunt and gather to exist. This can
equate to the concept of having some control over the physical
environment
· Role of Religion
· Very evident in the establishment of values and mores for a
group
· Oftentimes Religion was an essential part of governing and
control of the population
· The leader/king at times would serve as a priest/high priest
interceding with the gods/deities on behalf of the people
· Deities could be forces of nature, forces/objects in nature, or
gradually especially under the ancient Greeks and Romans –
anthropomorphic (having the shapes and characteristics of
humans).
· The Egyptians had 3 levels of gods – gods of natural forces,
gods which gave, and gods which took away.
· Complex Institutions
· Government, military, economic/trade, education, and religion
are all considered part of complex institutions
· Trade was an important factor as was warfare and conquest,
because it was through trade and warfare that innovation often

came to various groups.
· Social Structure
· How society is divided: if in pyramidal form you would find
the leader/monarch/high priest at the top of the pyramid, with
upper classes (including other priests, government officials,
family members, military), free people (to include farmers,
artisans, craftsmen) and slaves.
· Writing and Artistic Activity
· Writing – or some other form of communication and
recordkeeping. This is difficult as a trait of civilizations
because in some areas an alphabet (be it cuneiform, pictographs,
hieroglyphs, alphabet) may not have existed in some areas, but
this does not by itself mean there were no forms of
recordkeeping.
· Painting and sculpting are among the evidence accepted as
artistic activity.
The Ancient Civilizations – known as the River Civilizations –
most commonly cited in Western Civilization. Oftentimes we
may see references to the ancient people of these areas as
specific empires!
· Tigris and Euphrates – Mesopotamia
· Mesopotamia is a Greek term meaning land between the waters
· Important early civilizations because of the contributions
passed on to other groups
· Sumeriansand the Babylonians
· Ziggurats found in Ur
· Epic of Gilgamesh
· Cuneiform
· Code of Hammurabi
· The Nile – Egypt
· Of these ancient civilizations of the West – we have many
relics from Egypt because of two factors: Egypt was relatively
isolated or insulated due to bodies of water and deserts, and

because of the ancient river civilizations – the Nile River was
the most predictable. The Nile River flooded annually – the
major uncertainty was in relation to the volume of the flood. A
heavy flooding season meant some death and destruction; a
meager flood would mean death and destruction due to famine.
· The Indus – Indian (although, ironically, the Indus River is
found in modern Pakistan)
· The Huang-Ho – China
The early Mediterranean People
· The Phoenicians (predecessors to today’s Lebanese)
· The Hebrews – a nomadic tribal people who originated in
Mesopotamia and were unique among the early civilizations in
that their civilization was based upon a covenant with their God
– a monotheistic as opposed to polytheistic group.
Early Empires
· Assyrians
· Persians
People of the Fertile Crescent developed many elements that
contributed to the formation of Western Civ: agriculture,
writing, and law – this emerging culture remained subject to
transformation
· Location permitted it to benefit from the far reaches of Asia
· Location also caused a bit of instability as invaders not only
brought with them ideas, but also destruction
· People of the regions north of the Black Sea and the Caucasus
Mts produced people who often waged war on the people of the
Fertile Crescent – but also helped develop a culture that had a
profound influence on the West.

· Linguists labeled these invaders as Indo European because
their language served as the basis for all subsequent European
languages except Finnish, Hungarian, and Basques
· Language separates the Indo-Europeans from most of the
original inhabitants of the Fertile Crescent who spoke the
Semitic languages (therefore, can an Arab be anti-semitic?)
· The steady influx of Indo-Europeans (Celts, Latins, Greeks, or
Germans) formed the dominant population of Europe
· Meanwhile other Indo-European groups moved eastward and
settled Turkey, India, and Persia
· Traits of the Indo Europeans:
· They were led by a warrior elite who were buried in elaborate
graves
· They were buried with prized possessions
· They rode horses (they first domesticated horses around 2000
BCE) which gave these warriors advantage over foot soldiers
with speed, mobility, and reach of their foes who utilized
archers
· They carried their possessions in carts, with 4 solid wheels (as
opposed to the Sumerians who used 2-wheels chariots) . The
heavy carts with 4 wheels imply that they were developed over
relatively flat terrain along wooden roadways
· They were not literate people – rather they passed their
traditions orally
· They worshipped gods who lived in the sky, and yet they also
adopted some traits and characteristics of the Crescent

civilizations… such as adoption of foods and then spread these
grains etc to other areas.
The Egyptians
This civilization was based on a river – the Nile which flows
northward from central Africa to the Mediterranean
· A climate change in 6000 BCE affected the development of
the civilization to depend upon the river – the Atlantic rains
shifted, changing grassy plains into deserts and forcing
dependency upon the river.
· The Nile – unlike the Tigris and Euphrates was predictable –
it flooded at the same time annually – the only uncertainty was
how much flood
· Egypt was more isolated than the civilizations to the north
east – the deserts! And also in the south, the marshes. Invaders
could come in from the Mediterranean. The civilization
developed without the fear of conquest – and by 3100 BCE a
king from Upper Egypt (Menes) united upper and lower Egypt
under his rule – thereby developing a 2 piece crown!
· Egyptians believed in the power of the gods being visible.
They worshiped the divine spirit that was expressed in heavenly
bodies, animals, and even insects. The most important deities
would emerge – such as the sun god Re (Amon) the Nile spirits
Isis and her husband Osiris, and their son the falcon god Horus.
· They believed they were blessed by the gods, and not cursed
by their chaotic whims. This optimism infused Egyptian culture
with extraordinary continuity – why mess with success?
· The heart of their prosperity was the king – the living
embodiment of the deity, and therein lies some interesting

conjecture. IF the kings were gods who came to earth to bring
truth, justice, and order (known as ma’at) then the people
should observe a code of correct behavior that included the
concept of ma’at. This ordered society was ruled by a god-king
– Pharaoh and it emerged in the years following 2450 BCE via a
high palace official (Ptah-hotep) who left instructions for his
son to follow the precepts of ma’at.
· The old kingdom – 2400-2181 BCE – saw astounding
prosperity and peace, including successful agriculture and
irrigation. Egypt had access to mineral resources – including
copper.
· They had successful trade with Nubia which provided access
to resources of sub-Saharan Africa. From Nubia Egypt gained
access to gold, ivory, ebony, gems, and aromatics in exchange
for Egyptian cloth and manufactured goods. With their surplus
of metals and grains, they could trade with other Mediterranean
cultures for textiles and wood.
· Among the contributions of the ancient Egyptians are the
hieroglyphics – or sacred writing. Hieroglyphs were more than
a series of simple pictures – each symbol could express one of 3
things: the object it portrayed, an abstract idea associated with
the object, or one or more sounds of speech from spoken
Egyptian (the technical terms: pictogram, ideogram, and
phonogram)
Your textbook gives you an interesting chart of Key Dates – I
would consider these dates. Note the 2 periods called
Intermediate periods. Some texts identify these as “illnesses”.
The explanation is simple: if the pharaoh is a good who gives
order and protection, how do you explain turmoil (invasions or
terrible droughts etc?). The god must be ill…. Ironically it is
through these illnesses that some progress is made in Egypt.
The discussion of issues and developments is worth

consideration, especially the discussion of Hatshepsut the
female leader, and, Akhenaten who believed in a supreme god
Aten (sun disk).
Questions arise about this rejection of the ancient gods of Egypt
– was Akhenaten influenced by the Hebrews? Was it a political
move against the power of the priests of Amon? Or was he a
dreamer? We will never know.
Everyone is aware of Akhenaten’s successor: Tutankhaton/or
Tutankhamun as he renounced the vision of his father-in-law
predecessor. He died at 18 years of age – not sure if he was
killed or died as a result of an accident…
The discussion of the Phoenicians, the Hebrews, and the growth
of Empires are worthy of your attention as well. Developments
in technology, in philosophy, and in basic skills of trade and
communication are well documents and I don’t want to spend
too much time reiterating the text when a simple reading of the
text will give you all the details you need.
I would note the contributions of the Phoenicians – especially
the idea of alphabet, books, trade and settlements. I would pay
attention to the notion of the covenant with the Israelites. As
well as the notion of the Assyrian rule – by terror/brutality. It
is not odd that a leader who employs such tactics would also be
head of an empire? Who devised methods of controlling vast
(for the time) territory and diverse people – use of a language
(Aramaic) to help control people, and the preservation of wealth
and knowledge that Ashurbanipal collected and formed into a
library!
With the arrival of the Babylonians and Persians there are also
major contributions. Nebuchadnezzar had a law code similar to
Hammurabi, but introduced extreme punishments for enemy
rulers and their followers – often flaying or burning them alive.

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Chapter 3The Civilization of the GreeksCopyright © 2017 Ceng.docx