1) The document provides an overview of key accounting concepts including the definition of accounting, functions and objectives of accounting, advantages and limitations of accounting, book keeping, types of accounting information, subfields of accounting, qualitative characteristics of accounting information, and more.
2) It describes key accounting terms like assets, liabilities, receipts, expenses, expenditures, business transactions, accounts, capital, drawings, profit, loss, goods, purchases, and more.
3) The document explains accounting concepts like double entry system of bookkeeping, types of assets and liabilities, types of receipts and expenditures, classification of accounts, and more.
A financial ratio (or accounting ratio) is a relative magnitude of two selected numerical values taken from an enterprise's financial statements. Often used in accounting, there are many standard ratios used to try to evaluate the overall financial condition of a corporation or other organization. Financial ratios may be used by managers within a firm, by current and potential shareholders (owners) of a firm, and by a firm's creditors. Financial analysts use financial ratios to compare the strengths and weaknesses in various companies.[1] If shares in a company are traded in a financial market, the market price of the shares is used in certain financial ratios.
Ratios can be expressed as a decimal value, such as 0.10, or given as an equivalent percent value, such as 10%. Some ratios are usually quoted as percentages, especially ratios that are usually or always less than 1, such as earnings yield, while others are usually quoted as decimal numbers, especially ratios that are usually more than 1, such as P/E ratio; these latter are also called multiples. Given any ratio, one can take its reciprocal; if the ratio was above 1, the reciprocal will be below 1, and conversely. The reciprocal expresses the same information, but may be more understandable: for instance, the earnings yield can be compared with bond yields, while the P/E ratio cannot be: for example, a P/E ratio of 20 corresponds to an earnings yield of 5%.
Values used in calculating financial ratios are taken from the balance sheet, income statement, statement of cash flows or (sometimes) the statement of retained earnings. These comprise the firm's "accounting statements" or financial statements. The statements' data is based on the accounting method and accounting standards used by the organization.
Ratios
Profitability ratios
Liquidity ratios
Activity ratios (Efficiency Ratios)
Debt ratios (leveraging ratios)
Market ratios
Capital budgeting ratios
Financial ratios quantify many aspects of a business and are an integral part of the financial statement analysis. Financial ratios are categorized according to the financial aspect of the business which the ratio measures. Liquidity ratios measure the availability of cash to pay debt.[2] Activity ratios measure how quickly a firm converts non-cash assets to cash assets.[3] Debt ratios measure the firm's ability to repay long-term debt.[4] Profitability ratios measure the firm's use of its assets and control of its expenses to generate an acceptable rate of return.[5] Market ratios measure investor response to owning a company's stock and also the cost of issuing stock.[6] These are concerned with the return on investment for shareholders, and with the relationship between return and the value of an investment in company’s shares.
Financial ratios allow for comparisons
between companies
between industries
between different time periods for one company
between a single company and its industry average
Trend analysis of Raymond. Comparing last year's Financial ratios with current year. Providing recommendations on what the firm's course of action should be and improvement measures.
A financial ratio (or accounting ratio) is a relative magnitude of two selected numerical values taken from an enterprise's financial statements. Often used in accounting, there are many standard ratios used to try to evaluate the overall financial condition of a corporation or other organization. Financial ratios may be used by managers within a firm, by current and potential shareholders (owners) of a firm, and by a firm's creditors. Financial analysts use financial ratios to compare the strengths and weaknesses in various companies.[1] If shares in a company are traded in a financial market, the market price of the shares is used in certain financial ratios.
Ratios can be expressed as a decimal value, such as 0.10, or given as an equivalent percent value, such as 10%. Some ratios are usually quoted as percentages, especially ratios that are usually or always less than 1, such as earnings yield, while others are usually quoted as decimal numbers, especially ratios that are usually more than 1, such as P/E ratio; these latter are also called multiples. Given any ratio, one can take its reciprocal; if the ratio was above 1, the reciprocal will be below 1, and conversely. The reciprocal expresses the same information, but may be more understandable: for instance, the earnings yield can be compared with bond yields, while the P/E ratio cannot be: for example, a P/E ratio of 20 corresponds to an earnings yield of 5%.
Values used in calculating financial ratios are taken from the balance sheet, income statement, statement of cash flows or (sometimes) the statement of retained earnings. These comprise the firm's "accounting statements" or financial statements. The statements' data is based on the accounting method and accounting standards used by the organization.
Ratios
Profitability ratios
Liquidity ratios
Activity ratios (Efficiency Ratios)
Debt ratios (leveraging ratios)
Market ratios
Capital budgeting ratios
Financial ratios quantify many aspects of a business and are an integral part of the financial statement analysis. Financial ratios are categorized according to the financial aspect of the business which the ratio measures. Liquidity ratios measure the availability of cash to pay debt.[2] Activity ratios measure how quickly a firm converts non-cash assets to cash assets.[3] Debt ratios measure the firm's ability to repay long-term debt.[4] Profitability ratios measure the firm's use of its assets and control of its expenses to generate an acceptable rate of return.[5] Market ratios measure investor response to owning a company's stock and also the cost of issuing stock.[6] These are concerned with the return on investment for shareholders, and with the relationship between return and the value of an investment in company’s shares.
Financial ratios allow for comparisons
between companies
between industries
between different time periods for one company
between a single company and its industry average
Trend analysis of Raymond. Comparing last year's Financial ratios with current year. Providing recommendations on what the firm's course of action should be and improvement measures.
We have picked up HUL balance sheets of years from ACE-Equity and applied some ratio analysis to analyze the trend and predict next year results of the company.
in this presentation we discussed about basic of ratio, types of ratio, comparison of ratios of hul and itc limited.
some ratios and graphs are taken from moneycontrol.com
Ratio analysis project on ONGC of year 2010-11 & 2011-12Arjun Negi
Title: ratio analysis for period 2010-11 & 2011-12 : case study of ONGC SCOPE:
a) Ratio Analysis: concept, definition, Objectives, merits and demerits;
b) Calculation of solvency ratios: short term & long term;
c) Analysis of last two year 2010-11 & 2011-12;
d) Conclusion.
( included bibliography, literature review , and ONGC balance sheet )
This particular project is based on ratio analysis of Coca-Cola International. I have analyzed two years financial performance of Coke i.e. from 2011 to 2012. I hope my this effort will help other interested students.
We have picked up HUL balance sheets of years from ACE-Equity and applied some ratio analysis to analyze the trend and predict next year results of the company.
in this presentation we discussed about basic of ratio, types of ratio, comparison of ratios of hul and itc limited.
some ratios and graphs are taken from moneycontrol.com
Ratio analysis project on ONGC of year 2010-11 & 2011-12Arjun Negi
Title: ratio analysis for period 2010-11 & 2011-12 : case study of ONGC SCOPE:
a) Ratio Analysis: concept, definition, Objectives, merits and demerits;
b) Calculation of solvency ratios: short term & long term;
c) Analysis of last two year 2010-11 & 2011-12;
d) Conclusion.
( included bibliography, literature review , and ONGC balance sheet )
This particular project is based on ratio analysis of Coca-Cola International. I have analyzed two years financial performance of Coke i.e. from 2011 to 2012. I hope my this effort will help other interested students.
This powerpoint presentation is created by Gyanbikash.com for the students of class nine to ten from their accounting NCTB textbook for multimedia class.
Introduction
Needs and Role of Accounting
System of Accounting
Branches of Accounting
Objectives of Accounting
Generally Accepted Accounting principles : (Accounting Concepts and Conventions)
Documents in Accounting
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
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How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
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http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
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Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
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Chap 1
1. CBSE CLASS 11 ACCOUNTANCY
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING PART-1
REVISION NOTES
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING
Accounting
Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarising the economic
information in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which
are, in part at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof.
Functions of Accounting
Identifying the financial transaction
Recording in book of original entry
Classifying Individual accounts
Preparing Financial statements
Communicating to different users
From Vouchers
In Journal
Book
Post In Ledger
Balance Sheet &
Profit & Loss
Account
2. 1) Identifying: The first step in accounting is to determine what to record, i.e., to identify
the financial events which are to be recorded in the books of accounts. It involves
observing all business activities and selecting those events or transactions which canbe
considered as financial transactions.
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3. 2) Recording: A transaction will be recorded in the books of accounts only it is considered
as an economic event and can be measured in terms of money. Once the economic events
are identified and measured in economic terms they will be recorded in the books of
accounts in monetary terms and in chronological order.
3) Classifying: Once the financial transactions are recorded in journal or subsidiary books,
all the financial transactions are classified by grouping the transactions of one nature at
one place in a separate room.
4) Summarising: It is concerned with presentation of data and it begins with balance of
ledger accounts and the preparation of trial balance with the help of such balances.
5) Communication: The main purpose of accounting is to communicate the financial
information the users who analyse them as per their individual requirements. Providing
financial information to its users is a regular process.
Objectives of Accounting
1) To keep systematic and complete records of financial transactions in the books of
accounts according to specified principles and rules to avoid the possibility of omission
and fraud.
2) To ascertain the profit earned or loss incurred during a particular accounting period
which further help in knowing the financial performance of a business.
3) To ascertain the financial position of the business by the means of financial statement i.e.
balance sheet which shows assets on one side and Capital & Liabilities on the other side.
4) To provide useful accounting information to users like owners, investors, creditors,
banks, employees and government authorities etc who analyze them as per their
requirements.
2
4. 5) To provide financial information to the management which help in decision making,
budgeting and forecasting.
6) To prevent frauds by maintaining regular and systematic accounting records.
Advantages of Accounting
1) It provides information which is useful to management for making economic decisions.
2) It helps owners to compare one year’s results with those of other years to locate the
factors which leads to changes.
3) It provides information about the financial position of the business by means of balance
sheet which shows assets on one side and Capital & Liabilities on the other side.
4) It helps in keeping systematic and complete records of business transactions in the books
of accounts according to specified principles and rules, which is accepted by the Courts
as evidence.
5) It helps a firm in the assessment of its correct tax Liabilities such as income tax, sales tax,
VAT, excise duty etc.
6) Properly maintained accounts help a business entity in determining its proper purchase
price.
Limitations of Accounting
1) It is historical in nature; it does not reflect the current worth of a business. Moreover, the
figures given in financial statements ignore the effects of changes in price level.
3
5. 2) It contains only those informations which can be expressed in terms of money. It ignores
qualitative elements such as efficiency of management, quality of staff, customer’s
satisfactions etc.
3) It may be affected by window dressing i.e. manipulation in accounts to present a more
favorable position of a business firm than its actual position.
4) It is not free from personal bias and personal judgment of the people dealing with it. For
example, different people have different opinions regarding life of asset for calculating
depreciation, provision for doubtful debts etc.
5) It is based on various concepts and conventions which may hamper the disclosure of
realistic financial position of a business firm. For example, assets in balance sheet are
shown at their cost and not at their market value which could be realised on their sale.
Book Keeping - The Basis of Accounting
Book keeping is the record-making phase of accounting which is concerned with the
recording of financial transactions and events relating to business in a significant and
orderly manner. Book Keeping should not be confused with accounting. Book keeping is
the recording phase while accounting is concerned with the summarizing phase of an
accounting system. The distinction between the two are as under.
Accounting Book Keeping
1) It is the summarizing phase of an
accounting system.
1) It is the recording phase of an
accounting system.
2) It is a Secondary Stage which begins
where the Book keeping process ends.
2) It is a primary stage and basis for
accounting.
3) It is analytical in nature and required
special skill or knowledge.
3) It is routine in nature and does not
require any special skill or knowledge
4
6. 4) It is done by senior staff called
accountants.
4) It is done by junior staff called book-
keepers
5) It gives the complete picture of the
financial conditions of the business unit.
5) It does not give the complete picture of
the financial conditions of the business
unit.
Types of accounting information
Accounting information can be categorized into following:
1) Information relating to profit or loss i.e. income statement, shows the net profit of
business operations of a firm during a particular accounting period.
2) Information relating to Financial position i.e. Balance Sheet. It shows assets on one side
and Capital & Liabilities on the other side. Schedules and notes forming part of balance
sheet and income statement to give details of various items shown in both of them.
Subfields/Branches of Accounting
1) Financial Accounting: It is that subfield/Branch of accounting which is concerned with
recording of business transactions of financial nature in a systematic manner, to ascertain
the profit or loss of the accounting period and to present the financial position of the
business.
2) Cost Accounting: It is that Subfield/Branch of accounting which is concerned with
ascertainment of total cost and per unit cost of goods or services produced/ provided by a
business firm.
3) Management Accounting: It is that subfield/Branch of accounting which is concerned
with presenting the accounting information in such a manner that help the management in
planning and controlling the operations of a business and in better decision making.
5
7. Qualitative Characteristics of Accounting Information
Accounting information is useful for interested users only if it poses the following
characteristics:
1) Reliability: Means the information must be based on facts and be verified through source
documents by anyone. It must be free from bias and errors.
2) Relevance: To be relevant, information must be available in time and must influence the
decisions of users by helping them to form prediction about the outcomes.
3) Understandability: The information should be presented in such a manner that users can
understand it well.
4) Comparability: The information should be disclosed in such a manner that it can be
compared with previous year’s figures of business itself and other firm’s data.
Assets
Assets are valuable and economic resources of an enterprise useful in its operations.
Assets can be broadly classified as:
1) Current Assets: Current Assets are those assets which are held for short period and can
be converted into cash within one year. For example: Debtors, stock etc.
2) Non-Current Assets: Non-Current Assets are those assets which are hold for long period
and used for normal business operation. For example: Land, Building, Machinery etc.
They are further classified into:
a) Tangible Assets: Tangible Assets are those assets which have physical existence
and can be seen and touched. For Example: Furniture, Machinery etc.
b) Intangible Assets: Intangible Assets are those assets which have no physical
existence and can be felt by operation. For example: Goodwill, Patent, Trade
mark etc.
8. Liabilities
Liabilities are obligations or debts that an enterprise has to pay after some time in the
future. Liabilities can be classified as:
1) Current Liabilities: Current Liabilities are obligations or debts that are payable within a
period of one year. For Example: Creditors, Bill Payable etc.
2) Non-Current Liabilities: Non-Current Liabilities are those obligations or debts that are
payable after a period of one year. Example: Bank Loan, Debentures etc.
Receipts
A written acknowledgment of having received, or taken into one's possession, a specified
amount of money, goods, etc. receipts, the amount or quantity received. the act of
receiving or the state of being received. Receipts can be classified as:
1) Revenue Receipts: Revenue Receipts are those receipts which are occurred by normal
operation of business like money received by sale of business products.
2) Capital Receipts: Capital Receipts are those receipts which are occurred by other than
business operations like money received by sale of fixed assets.
Expenses
Costs incurred by a business for earning revenue are known as expenses. For example:
Rent, Wages, Salaries, Interest etc.
7
9. Expenditure
Spending money or incurring a liability for acquiring assets, goods or services is called
expenditure. The expenditure is classified as:
1) Revenue Expenditure: It is the amount spent to purchase goods and services that are
used during an accounting period is called revenue expenditure. For Example: Rent,
interest, etc.
2) Capital Expenditure: If benefit of expenditure is received for more than one year, it is
called capital expenditure. Example: Purchase of Machinery.
3) Deferred Revenue Expenditure: There are certain expenditures which are revenue in
nature but benefit of which is derived over number of years. For Example: Huge
Advertisement Expenditure.
Business Transaction
An Economic activity that affects financial position of the business and can be measured
in terms of money e.g., expenses etc.
Account
Account refers to a summarized record of relevant transactions of particular head at one
place. All accounts are divided into two sides. The left side of an account is called debit
side and the right side of an account is called credit side.
Capital
Amount invested by the owner in the firm is known as capital. It may be brought in the
form of cash or assets by the owner.
8
10. Drawings
The money or goods or both withdrawn by owner from business for personal use, is
known as drawings. Example: Purchase of car for wife by withdrawing money from
business.
Profit
The excess of revenues over its related expenses during an accounting year is profit.
Profit = Revenue – Expenses.
Gain
A non-recurring profit from events or transactions incidental to business such as sale of
fixed assets, appreciation in the value of an asset etc.
Loss
The excess of expenses of a period over its related revenues is termed as loss. Loss =
Expenses – Revenue.
Goods
The products in which the business deal in. The items that are purchased for the purpose
of resale and not for use in the business are called goods.
Purchases
The term purchased is used only for the goods procured by a business for resale. In case
of trading concerns it is purchase of final goods and in manufacturing concern it is
purchase of raw materials. Purchases may be cash purchases or credit purchases.
Purchase Return
When purchased goods are returned to the suppliers, these are known as purchase return.
9
11. Sales
Sales are total revenues from goods sold or services provided to customers. Sales may be
cash sales or credit sales.
Sales Return
When sold goods are returned from customer due to any reason is known as sales return.
Debtors
Debtors are persons and/or other entities to whom business has sold goods and services
on credit and amount has not received yet. These are assets of the business.
Creditors
If the business buys goods/services on credit and amount is still to be paid to the persons
and/or other entities, these are called creditors. These are liabilities for the business.
Bill Receivable
Bill Receivable is an accounting term of Bill of Exchange. A Bill of Exchange is Bill
Receivable for seller at time of credit sale.
Bill Payable
Bill Payable is also an accounting term of Bill of Exchange. A Bill of Exchange is Bill
Payable for purchaser at time of credit purchase.
Discount
Discount is the rebate given by the seller to the buyer. It can be classified as:
1) Trade Discount: The purpose of this discount is to persuade the buyer to buy more
goods. It is offered at an agreed percentage of list price at the time of selling goods. This
discount is not recorded in the accounting books as it is deducted in the invoice/cash
memo.
10
12. 2) Cash Discount: The objective of providing cash discount is to encourage the debtors to
pay the dues promptly. This discount is recorded in the accounting books.
Income
Income is a wider term, which includes profit also. Income means increase in the wealth of
the enterprise over a period of time.
Stock
The goods available with the business for sale on a particular date is known as stock.
Cost
Cost refers to expenditures incurred in acquiring manufacturing and processing goods to
make it saleable.
Voucher
The documentary evidence in support of a transaction is known as voucher. For example, if
we buy goods for cash we get cash memo, if we buy goods on credit, we get an invoice,
when we make a payment we get a receipt.
13. Double Entry System of Book-keeping
Double Entry System of Book-keeping refers to a system of accounting under which both
the aspects (i.e. debit or credit) of every transaction are recorded in the accounts involved.
The individual record of person or thing or an item of income or an expense is called an
account. Every debit has equal amount of credit. So the total of all debits must be equal to
the total of all credits.