This document discusses the development of atomic theory from ancient Greek philosophers to the modern quantum mechanical model. Key contributors and discoveries include Dalton formulating the first atomic theory, Thomson discovering the electron, Rutherford deducing the nuclear atom from alpha particle scattering experiments, and Bohr, de Broglie, Schrodinger, and others developing quantum mechanics to explain atomic structure and spectra. The modern atomic model consists of electrons in quantized energy levels around an atomic nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which is summarized by the periodic table and determines chemical properties.

1. PowerPoint Lectures
to accompany
Physical Science, 10e
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 8
Atoms and Periodic
Properties

2. Different fields of study
contributed to the development of
a model of the atom.
Core Concept

3. Atomic Structure Discovered
Ancient Greeks
• Democritus (460-362 BC) -
indivisible particles called
“atoms”
• Prevailing argument (Plato and
Aristotle) - matter is
continuously and infinitely
divisible
John Dalton (early 1800’s) -
reintroduced atomic theory to
explain chemical reactions

4. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter = indivisible atoms
2. An element is made up of identical atoms.
3. Different elements have atoms with different
masses.
4. Chemical compounds are made of atoms in
specific integer ratios.
5. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
chemical reactions.

5. Discovery of the Electron
J. J. Thomson (late
1800’s)
• Performed cathode ray
experiments
• Discovered negatively
charged electron
• Measured electron’s
charge-to-mass ratio
• Identified electron as a
fundamental particle

6. Electron Charge and Mass
Robert Millikan
(~1906)
• Studied charged oil
droplets in an electric
field
• Charge on droplets =
multiples of electron
charge
• Charge + Thomson’s
result gave electron
mass

7. Early Models of the Atom
• Dalton - atoms indivisible
• Thomson and Millikan experiments
– Electron mass very small, no measurable volume
– What is the nature of an atom’s positive charge?
• Thomson’s “Plum pudding” model
– Electrons embedded in blob of positively charged
matter like “raisins in plum pudding”

8. The Nucleus
Ernest Rutherford (1907)
• Scattered alpha particles off
gold foil
• Most passed through without
significant deflection
• A few scattered at large
angles
• Conclusion: an atom’s
positive charge resides in a
small, massive nucleus
• Later: positive charges =
protons
• James Chadwick (1932):
also neutral neutrons in the
nucleus

9. The Nuclear Atom
• Atomic number
– Number of protons in
nucleus
– Elements distinguished
by atomic number
– 113 elements identified
– Number of protons =
number of electrons in
neutral atoms
• Isotopes
– Same number of protons;
different number of
neutrons

10. Atomic Symbols and Masses
Mass number
• Number of protons +
neutrons
Atomic mass units (u)
• 1/12 of carbon-12
isotope mass
Atomic weight
• Atomic mass of an
element, averaged over
naturally occurring
isotopes

11. Classical “Atoms”
Predictions of classical theory
• Electrons orbit the nucleus
• Curved path = acceleration
• Accelerated charges radiate
• Electrons lose energy and spiral into nucleus
• Atoms cannot exist!
Experiment - atoms do exist
⇒ New theory needed

12. The Quantum Concept
• Max Planck (1900)
– Introduced quantized
energy
• Einstein (1905)
– Light made up of
quantized photons
• Higher frequency
photons = more
energetic photons

13. Atomic Spectra
Blackbody radiation
• Continuous radiation
distribution
• Depends on temperature of
radiating object
• Characteristic of solids,
liquids and dense gases
Line spectrum
• Emission at characteristic
frequencies
• Diffuse matter: incandescent
gases
• Illustration: Balmer series of
hydrogen lines

14. Bohr’s Theory
Three rules:
1. Electrons only exist in
certain allowed orbits
2. Within an orbit, the
electron does not
radiate
3. Radiation is emitted or
absorbed when
changing orbits

15. Quantum Theory of the Atom
• Lowest energy state =
“ground state”
• Higher states = “excited
states”
• Photon energy equals
difference in state
energies
• Hydrogen atom
example
– Energy levels
– Line spectra

16. Quantum Mechanics
• Bohr theory only modeled the line spectrum
of H
• Further experiments established wave-
particle duality of light and matter
– Young’s two slit experiment produced interference
patterns for both photons and electrons.

17. Matter Waves
Louis de Broglie
(1923)
• Postulated matter
waves
• Wavelength related to
momentum
• Matter waves in atoms
are standing waves

18. Wave Mechanics
• Developed by Erwin Schrodinger
• Treats atoms as three-dimensional systems
of waves
• Contains successful ideas of Bohr model and
much more
• Describes hydrogen atom and many electron
atoms
• Forms our fundamental understanding of
chemistry

19. The Quantum Mechanics
Model
• Quantum numbers
specify electronic
quantum states
• Visualization - wave
functions and
probability
distributions
• Electrons
delocalized

20. Electronic Quantum Numbers
in Atoms
1. Principle quantum number, n
– Energy level
– Average distance from
nucleus
1. Angular momentum quantum
number, l
– Spatial distribution
– Labeled s, p, d, f, g, h, …
1. Magnetic quantum number
– Spatial orientation of orbit
1. Spin quantum number
– Electron spin orientation

22. Electron Configuration
• Arrangement of
electrons into atomic
orbitals
• Principle, angular
momentum and
magnetic quantum
numbers specify an
orbital
• Specifies atom’s
quantum state
• Pauli exclusion principle
– Each electron has
unique quantum
numbers
– Maximum of two
electrons per orbital
(electron spin
up/down)
• Chemical properties
determined by
electronic structure

23. Writing Electron Configurations
• Electrons fill available
orbitals in order of
increasing energy
• Shell capacities
– s = 2
– p = 6
– d = 10
– f = 14
• Example: strontium (38
electrons)
1s2
2s2
2p6
3s2
3p6
4s2
3d10
4p6
5s2

24. Periodic Chemical Properties
• Understood in terms of
electron configuration
• Electrons in outer orbits
determine chemical
properties
• Summarized in the
periodic table
• Rows = periods
• Columns = families or
groups
– Alkali metals (IA)
– Alkaline earths (IIA)
– Halogens (VIIA)
– Noble gases (VIIIA)
• A-group families = main
group or representative
elements
• B-group = transition
elements or metals

25. The Periodic Table

26. Metals, Nonmetals and
Semiconductors
• Noble gases - filled shells,
inert
• 1-2-3 outer electrons
– Lose to become positive
ions
– Metals
• 5-7 outer electrons
– Tend to gain electrons
and form negative ions
– Nonmetals
• Semiconductors -
intermediate between
metals and nonmetals