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CH 7_Behaviorial And Cogntive Approaches.pptx
- 1. Human Resource University MA.in TESOL Course: Educational Psychology Mr. Vath Vary Phone: 017 47 111 7 Email: varyvath@gmail.com Chapter 7: Behavioral and social cognitive approaches
- 2. Chapter Outline What Is Learning? What Learning Is andIs Not; Approaches to Learning Behavioral Approaches to Learning Classical Conditioning; Operant Conditioning Applied Behavior Analysis in Education What Is Applied Behavior Analysis?; Increasing Desirable Behaviors; Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors; Evaluating Operant Conditioning and Applied Behavior Analysis What Is Applied Behavior Analysis?; Increasing Desirable Behaviors; Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors; Evaluating Operant Conditioning and Applied Behavior Analysis Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory; Observational Learning; Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches and Self- Regulation; Evaluating the Social Cognitive Approaches
- 3. I. WHAT ISLEARNING? Psychology: is concerned with the question of how people learn Ask how psychology can contribute to education ‘learning’ is defined as a relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills, which comes about through experience. Learning can be academic and non- academic.
- 4. WHAT LEARNING ISAND IS NOT? What does “relatively permanent” mean? And how does experience change what we do? The “relatively permanent” part of the definition refers to the fact that when people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changed to record what they’ve learned This is actually a process of memory, for without the ability to remember what happens, people cannot learn anything.
- 5. NOT EVERYTHING WEKNOW IS LEARNED. Nature–inborn or innate capacities–not learned Ex. We don’t have to be taught to swallow, to flinch at loud noises, or to blink when an object comes too close to our eyes Most human behaviors – learned (environment) Ex. When children use a computer in a new way, work harder at solving problems, ask better questions, explain an answer in a more logical way, or listen more attentively, the experience of learning is at work. Unconscious Conscious
- 6. WHY STUDYLEARNING? If we had not been able to learn, we would have died out as a species long ago. Learning is the process that allows us to adapt to the changing conditions of the world around us. We can alter our actions until we find the behavior that leads us to survival and rewards, and we can eliminate actions that have been unsuccessful in the past. Without learning, there would be no buildings, no agriculture, no lifesaving medicines, and no human civilization.
- 7. PSYCHOLOGY: APPROACHES TO LEARNING Psychology: 3major branches Behaviorism/ behavioral theories Cognition/ Cognitive theories Phenomenological and humanistic theories
- 8. CONT Behaviorism Focuseson stimulus, response and reinforcer Studies conditioning–classical and operant, modifying, or shaping reinforcement and rewards Cognition(thought): Focuses on information processing in relation to the total environment (senses, digital devices…) Studies developmental stages (nature/nurture; readiness), understanding multiple forms of intelligences, problem solving, critical thinking, and creativity Phenomenology and Humanism: Deals with the learner’s need, attitude, and feelings and entail more alternatives in learning
- 9. 1- BEHAVIORISM emphasizeon experiences, especially reinforcement and punishment, as determinants of learning and behavior view that behavior should be explained by observable experiences, not by mental processes. Mental processes–are defined as the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences but that cannot be observed by others.
- 10. CONT. Behavior–verbal andnonverbal–can be directly seen or heard. Ex. a child creating a poster, a teacher explaining something to a child, one student picking on another student, and so on. associative learning, which consists of learning that two events are connected or associated (classical and operant conditioning) Ex. occurs when a student associates a pleasant event with learning something in school, such as the teacher smiling when the student asks a good question.
- 11. 2- COGNITIVE Cognitivecontrols behavior Ex. Children thinking about ways to create the best poster, a teacher feeling good about children’s efforts, and children’s inner motivation to control their behavior
- 12. II. BEHAVIORAL APPROACHESTO LEARNING Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
- 13. PREREQUISITE KEY TERMS A stimulus can be defined as any object, event, or experience that causes Response refers to the reaction of an organism neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that has no effect on the desired response prior to conditioning.
- 14. II. A. CLASSICALCONDITIONING (IVAN PAVLOV, 1927) Two types of stimuli/response Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning. Unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the UCS. Two types of stimuli/response conditioned stimulus (CS)–is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with the UCS. conditioned response (CR)–is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after UCS-CS pairing.
- 15. CONT Classical conditioning: theorganism learns to connect, or associate, stimuli. a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
- 16. PAVLOV’S DOGS IvanPalvov was the first to demonstrate classical conditioning He is best know for his experiment with salivating dog Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a bell. Dogs naturally salivated with food (UCR) A bell (NS) was run every time the dogs were fed over a period of time creating the association/connection of the bell with food After time, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell alone
- 17. PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING In one experiment, Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (bell) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food). The neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus by being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. Subsequently, the conditioned stimulus (bell) by itself was able to elicit the dog’s salivation.
- 18. CONT. In classroom:Classical conditioning: Positive experiences–a favorite song and feelings that the classroom is a safe and fun place to be Ex. a song–neutral stimulus–until the child joins in with other classmates to sing it with accompanying positive feelings. negative experiences–criticism > fear (=test anxiety) Ex. a child fails and is criticized, which produces anxiety; thereafter, the child associates tests with anxiety, so they then can become a CS for anxiety
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- 20. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES Generalization: tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response Discrimination: occurs when the organism responds to certain stimuli but not others. Extinction: involves the weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Systematic desensitization: is a method based on classical conditioning that: reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-provoking situations.
- 21. EVALUATING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING good at explaining how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned, involuntary responses helpful in understanding students’ anxieties and fears. not effective in explaining voluntary behaviors, Ex. why a student studies hard for a test or likes history better than geography. Benefits: Drawbacks:
- 22. II.B. OPERANT CONDITIONING(B. F. SKINNER’S, 1938) … (also called instrumental conditioning) is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. Consequence punishment reward Behavior Organism’s behavior
- 23. CONT Reinforcement (reward)–isa consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur. Two forms of reinforcement: positive reinforcement (added): the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. negative reinforcement (removed): the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus, but not punishment. punishment–is a consequence that decreases the probability a behavior will occur (rejected by Skinner because he felt it interfered with learning)
- 24. CONT Behavior will “extinguish”without reinforcement NOTE: “Reinforcers’’ always strengthen behavior “Punishment” is used to suppress behavior
- 26. OPERANT CONDITIONING Generalization-means giving the same response to similar stimuli. Ex. especially of interest is the extent to which behavior generalizes from one situation to another Discrimination: involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental events Extinction: occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases. Ex. the most common use of extinction is for the teacher to withdraw attention from a behavior that the attention is maintaining.
- 27. APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSISIN EDUCATION Applied behavior analysis: involves applying the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior. Three are especially important in education: Applications of applied behavior analysis often use a series of steps (i.e. general observation > target behavior determination & antecedent conditions) (1) increasing desirable behavior, (2) using prompts and shaping, and (3) decreasing undesirable behavior Applications of ABA often use a series of steps: general observation > target behavior determination & observe its antecedent conditions)
- 28. INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIORS Six operantconditioning strategies–increase a child’s desirable behaviors: (1) choose effective reinforcers; (2) make reinforcers contingent and timely; (3) select the best schedule of reinforcement; (4) consider contracting; (5) use negative reinforcement effectively; and (6) use prompts and shaping.
- 29. INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIORS 1)Choose Effective reinforcers Not all reinforcers are the same for every child. ABA recommend–teachers must individualize to find out what work best for children Ex. Praise, favorite activity, surf the internet 2) Make reinforcers contingent and timely Contingent: depends on the certain behavior Timely: given as soon as possible after child perform the target behavior This helps children see the “contingency connection between reward & their behavior.” ABA recommend… ‘If … then”
- 30. INCREASING DESIRABLE BEHAVIORS 3)Select the best schedule of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement: the child is reinforced every time after he or she makes a response Partial reinforcement: involves reinforcing only part of the time Schedule of reinforcement: partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced
- 31. Four main schedulesof reinforcement: Fixed-ratio schedule: a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses. Variable-ratio schedule: a behavior is reinforced after an average number of times, but on an unpredictable basis. Fixed-interval schedule: the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced. Variable-interval schedule: a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. RATIO INTERVAL
- 32. CON’T 4) Contracting: involvesputting reinforcement contingencies into writing. 5) Use negative reinforcement effectively 6) Use Prompts and Shaping Prompt: an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response that increases the likelihood the response will occur. Shaping: teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior.
- 33. 2- DECREASING UNDESIRABLEBEHAVIORS Decreasing children’s undesirable behaviors (such as teasing, hogging a class discussion, or smarting off to the teacher) Paul Alberto and Anne Troutman (2017) recommend using these steps in this order: 1. use differential reinforcement. reinforces behavior that is more appropriate or that is incompatible with what the child is doing. 2. terminate reinforcement (extinction). involves withdrawing positive reinforcement from a child’s inappropriate behavior
- 34. 2- DECREASING UNDESIRABLEBEHAVIORS 3. remove desirable stimuli. Time-out: removing an individual from positive reinforcement. response cost: taking a positive reinforcer away from an individual. 4. present aversive stimuli (punishment). Verbal reprimand 1st: frown or eye contact 2nd: Talk in private, not in public give immediately after unwanted behavior–more effective Corporal punishment (not used in any circumstance)
- 35. EVALUATING OPERANT CONDITIONINGAND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS-CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION Disadvantages: Reinforcing and punishing consequences are part of teachers’ and students’ lives. Teachers give grades, praise and reprimand, smile and frown. Learning about how such consequences affect students’ behavior improves your capabilities as a teacher. Used effectively, behavioral techniques can help you manage your classroom.
- 36. EVALUATING OPERANT CONDITIONINGAND ABA- CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION Advantages: ABA still places too much emphasis on external control of students’ behavior not the reward or punishment that changes behavior but, rather, the belief or expectation that certain actions will be rewarded or punished not give adequate attention to cognitive processes involved in learning
- 37. EVALUATING OPERANT CONDITIONINGAND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS Anyway, critics of operant conditioning and applied behavior analysis argue that the whole approach places too much emphasis on external control of students’ behavior—a better strategy is to help students learn to control their own behavior and become internally motivated.
- 38. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVETHEORY Bandura contributed to the understanding of learning through observation and modeling. Social cognitive theory: states that social factors ( students’ observing their parents’ achievement behavior) and cognitive factors (the student’s expectations for success), as well as behavior, play important roles in learning. Bandura developed a reciprocal determinism model that consists of three main factors: Person: personality traits and temperament Cognitive: expectations, beliefs, attitudes, strategies, thinking, and intelligence. Affective and emotional: emotional self-regulation or temperament also are included in person/cognitive factors.
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- 40. CONT. Read examplesof how Bandura’s model might work in the case of the achievement behavior of a high school student (Refer to page 33-34) Cognition influences behavior Behavior influences cognition Environment influences behavior Behavior influences environment Cognition influences environment Environment influences cognition self-efficacy-is emphasized in Bandura’s Model
- 41. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Observationallearning: is learning that involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others. It involves imitation, not limited to it, but a general form or strategy often applied in creative ways by observers.
- 42. MODELS IN THECLASSROOM: A teacher as model in students’ lives. modeled demonstrations, in which the teacher describes and shows students how to solve problems and successfully complete academic tasks. parents, mentors, and peers. Peers Media
- 43. COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES AND SELF-REGULATION ChineseConfucius’s proverb: “If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime.” To some extent, do the cognitive- behavioral approaches and self-regulation reflect Confucius’ simple observation?
- 44. CONT. Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches Focuses on getting students to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than letting it be controlled by external factors. Ex. It tries to change students’ misconceptions, strengthen their coping skills, increase their self- control, and encourage constructive self-reflection Cognitive-behavioral approaches stem from both: cognitive psychology: with its emphasis on the effects of thoughts on behavior Behaviorism: with its emphasis on techniques for changing behavior.
- 45. CONT. Self-instructional methodsare cognitive- behavioral techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behavior (help people alter what they say to themselves) Self-talk strategies that students and teachers can use to cope more effectively with such stressful situations (Meichenbaum, Turk, & Burstein, 1975): 1. prepare for anxiety or stress 2. confront and handle the anxiety or stress 3. cope with feelings at critical moments 4. use reinforcing self-statements.
- 46. CONT. replacing negativeself-statements with positive ones. Ex. a student might say to herself, “I’ll never get this work done by tomorrow.” This can be replaced with positive self- statements such as these: “” This is going to be tough, but I think I can do it.” “I’m going to look at this as a challenge rather than a stressor.” “If I work really hard, I might be able to get it done. Or in having to participate in a class discussion, a student might replace the negative thought “Everyone else knows more than I do, so what’s the use of saying anything?” with positive self-statements such as these: “I have as much to say as anyone else.” “My ideas may be different, but they are still good.” “It’s okay to be a little nervous; I’ll relax and start talking.” Talking positively to oneself can help teachers and reach their full potential.
- 47. SELF-REGULATORY LEARNING Self-RegulatoryLearning consists of the self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal. Goals might be: academic (improving comprehension while reading, becoming a more organized writer, learning how to do multiplication, asking relevant questions) socioemotional (controlling one’s anger, getting along better with peers)
- 49. CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-REGULATEDLEARNERS (WINNE, 2001, 2005): Set goals for extending their knowledge and sustaining their motivation Are aware of their emotional makeup and have strategies for managing their emotions Periodically monitor their progress toward a goal Fine-tune or revise their strategies based on the progress they are making Evaluate obstacles that may arise and make the necessary adaptations Self-regulation is an important aspect of school readiness
- 50. EVALUATING THE SOCIALCOGNITIVE APPROACHES Benefits: Considerable learning occurs through watching and listening to competent models and then imitating what they do. emphasizes on self-instruction, self-talk, and self- regulatory learning provides an important shift from learning that is controlled by others to taking responsibility for one’s own learning Drawbacks: still focus too much on overt behavior and external factors and not enough on the details of how cognitive processes such as thinking, memory, and problem solving actually take place. nondevelopmental (specify age-related, sequential changes in learning) Humanistic–not placing enough attention on self-esteem and caring, supportive relationships.
- 51. REFERENCES Ciccarelli, S. K.,& White, J. N. (2017). Psychology. Pearson Education India. Hunkins, F. P., & Ornstein, A. C. 2016). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues. Pearson Education.