Thermodynamics describes the transfer of energy and the natural tendency of systems to move towards lower energy states. A system and its surroundings are defined, and changes in a system are associated with energy transfer. Systems can be in unstable, stable, or metastable energy states. Gibbs free energy (G) is a measure of a system's chemical energy and all systems naturally move towards minimum G states. G depends on enthalpy (H), temperature (T), and entropy (S). The phase with the lowest G value under a set of conditions is the most thermodynamically stable. By calculating G values, phase diagrams can be constructed to predict stability fields with changing temperature and pressure.
Plotting of different parameters entropy, enthalpy, gibbs free energy, heat c...Soumya Ranjan Sahoo
this presentation gives a broad idea about the thermodynamical parameters like enthalpy, entropy,Gibbs free energy specific heat etc, and the relation between those parameter.
Chemical equilibrium is briefly discussed with following topics:
Free energy change in a chemical reaction. Thermodynamic derivation of the law of chemical equilibrium.
Definition of ΔG and ΔG◦
Le Chatelier’s principle.
Relationships between Kp, Kc and Kx
Basic Terminology,Heat, energy and work, Internal Energy (E or U),First Law of Thermodynamics, Enthalpy,Molar heat capacity, Heat capacity,Specific heat capacity,Enthalpies of Reactions,Hess’s Law of constant heat summation,Born–Haber Cycle,Lattice energy,Second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy(ΔG),Bond Energies,Efficiency of a heat engine
Plotting of different parameters entropy, enthalpy, gibbs free energy, heat c...Soumya Ranjan Sahoo
this presentation gives a broad idea about the thermodynamical parameters like enthalpy, entropy,Gibbs free energy specific heat etc, and the relation between those parameter.
Chemical equilibrium is briefly discussed with following topics:
Free energy change in a chemical reaction. Thermodynamic derivation of the law of chemical equilibrium.
Definition of ΔG and ΔG◦
Le Chatelier’s principle.
Relationships between Kp, Kc and Kx
Basic Terminology,Heat, energy and work, Internal Energy (E or U),First Law of Thermodynamics, Enthalpy,Molar heat capacity, Heat capacity,Specific heat capacity,Enthalpies of Reactions,Hess’s Law of constant heat summation,Born–Haber Cycle,Lattice energy,Second law of thermodynamics, Gibbs free energy(ΔG),Bond Energies,Efficiency of a heat engine
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
HEAP SORT ILLUSTRATED WITH HEAPIFY, BUILD HEAP FOR DYNAMIC ARRAYS.
Heap sort is a comparison-based sorting technique based on Binary Heap data structure. It is similar to the selection sort where we first find the minimum element and place the minimum element at the beginning. Repeat the same process for the remaining elements.
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Top 10 Oil and Gas Projects in Saudi Arabia 2024.pdf
Ch 05 Thermodynamics.ppt
1. Thermodynamics
a system:
Some portion of the universe that you wish to study
The surroundings:
The adjacent part of the universe outside the
system
Changes in a system are associated with the transfer of
energy
Natural systems tend toward states of minimum energy
2. Energy States
Unstable: falling or rolling
Stable: at rest in lowest
energy state
Metastable: in low-energy
perch
Figure 5-1. Stability states. Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
3. Gibbs Free Energy
Gibbs free energy is a measure of chemical energy
All chemical systems tend naturally toward states
of minimum Gibbs free energy
G = H - TS
Where:
G = Gibbs Free Energy
H = Enthalpy (heat content)
T = Temperature in Kelvins
S = Entropy (can think of as randomness)
4. Thermodynamics
a Phase: a mechanically separable portion of a system
Mineral
Liquid
Vapor
a Reaction: some change in the nature or types of phases
in a system
reactions are written in the form:
reactants = products
5. Thermodynamics
The change in some property, such as G for a
reaction of the type:
2 A + 3 B = C + 4 D
DG = S (n G)products - S(n G)reactants
= GC + 4GD - 2GA - 3GB
6. Thermodynamics
For a phase we can determine V, T, P, etc., but not G or H
We can only determine changes in G or H as we change
some other parameters of the system
Example: measure DH for a reaction by calorimetry - the heat
given off or absorbed as a reaction proceeds
Arbitrary reference state and assign an equally arbitrary
value of H to it:
Choose 298.15 K and 0.1 MPa (lab conditions)
...and assign H = 0 for pure elements (in their natural state
- gas, liquid, solid) at that reference
7. Thermodynamics
In our calorimeter we can then determine DH for the reaction:
Si (metal) + O2 (gas) = SiO2 DH = -910,648 J/mol
= molar enthalpy of formation of quartz (at 298, 0.1)
It serves quite well for a standard value of H for the phase
Entropy has a more universal reference state: entropy of every
substance = 0 at 0K, so we use that (and adjust for temperature)
Then we can use G = H - TS to determine G of quartz
= -856,288 J/mol
8. Thermodynamics
For other temperatures and pressures we can use the
equation:
dG = VdP – SdT (ignoring DX for now)
where V = volume and S = entropy (both molar)
We can use this equation to calculate G for any phase at
any T and P by integrating
z
z
G G VdP SdT
T P T P
T
T
P
P
2 1 1
1
2
1
2
2
- = -
9. Thermodynamics
If V and S are constants, our equation reduces to:
GT2 P2 - GT1 P1 = V(P2 - P1) - S (T2 - T1)
which ain’t bad!
10. Thermodynamics
In Worked Example 1 we used
GT2 P2 - GT1 P1 = V(P2 - P1) - S (T2 - T1)
and G298, 0.1 = -856,288 J/mol to calculate G for quartz at several
temperatures and pressures
Low quartz Eq. 1 SUPCRT
P (MPa) T (C) G (J) eq. 1 G(J) V (cm3) S (J/K)
0.1 25 -856,288 -856,648 22.69 41.36
500 25 -844,946 -845,362 22.44 40.73
0.1 500 -875,982 -890,601 23.26 96.99
500 500 -864,640 -879,014 23.07 96.36
Agreement is quite good
(< 2% for change of 500o and 500 MPa or 17 km)
11. Thermodynamics
Summary thus far:
G is a measure of relative chemical stability for a phase
We can determine G for any phase by measuring H and S for
the reaction creating the phase from the elements
We can then determine G at any T and P mathematically
Most accurate if know how V and S vary with P and T
• dV/dP is the coefficient of isothermal compressibility
• dS/dT is the heat capacity (Cp)
Use?
If we know G for various phases, we can determine which is
most stable
Why is melt more stable than solids at high T?
Is diamond or graphite stable at 150 km depth?
What will be the effect of increased P on melting?
12. Does the liquid or
solid have the larger
volume?
High pressure favors
low volume, so which
phase should be stable
at high P?
Does liquid or solid have a
higher entropy?
High temperature favors
randomness, so which
phase should be stable at
higher T?
We can thus predict that the slope
of solid-liquid equilibrium should
be positive and that increased
pressure raises the melting point.
Figure 5-2. Schematic P-T phase diagram of a melting reaction.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
13. Does the liquid or solid
have the lowest G at
point A?
What about at point B?
The phase assemblage with the lowest G under a specific set of
conditions is the most stable
Figure 5-2. Schematic P-T phase diagram of a melting reaction.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
14. Free Energy vs. Temperature
dG = VdP - SdT at constant pressure: dG/dT = -S
Because S must be (+) G for a phase decreases as T
increases
Would the slope for the
liquid be steeper or
shallower than that for
the solid?
Figure 5-3. Relationship between Gibbs free energy and
temperature for a solid at constant pressure. Teq is the equilibrium
temperature. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
15. Free Energy vs. Temperature
Slope of GLiq > Gsol since
Ssolid < Sliquid
A: Solid more stable than
liquid (low T)
B: Liquid more stable than
solid (high T)
Slope dP/dT = -S
Slope S < Slope L
Equilibrium at Teq
GLiq = GSol
Figure 5-3. Relationship between Gibbs free energy and
temperature for the solid and liquid forms of a substance at constant
pressure. Teq is the equilibrium temperature. Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
16. Now consider a reaction, we can then use the equation:
dDG = DVdP - DSdT (again ignoring DX)
For a reaction of melting (like ice water)
DV is the volume change involved in the reaction (Vwater - Vice)
similarly DS and DG are the entropy and free energy changes
dDG is then the change in DG as T and P are varied
DG is (+) for S L at point A (GS < GL)
DG is (-) for S L at point B (GS > GL)
DG = 0 for S L at point x (GS = GL)
DG for any reaction = 0 at equilibrium
17. Figures I don’t use in class
Figure 5-4. Relationship between Gibbs free energy and pressure for
the solid and liquid forms of a substance at constant temperature.
Peq is the equilibrium pressure. Winter (2001) An Introduction to
Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
18. Figures I don’t use in class
Figure 5-5. Piston-and-cylinder apparatus to compress a gas.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology. Prentice Hall.
Editor's Notes
a system:
Some portion of the universe that you wish to study
a glass of water
plagioclase
the mantle
Changes in a system are associated with the transfer of energy
lift an object: stored chemical potential
drop an object: potential kinetic
pump up a bicycle tire: chemical mechanical heat (friction + compression)
add an acid to a base: chemical heat
The side of the reaction with lower G will be more stable
How do we go about determining this for a reaction?
First we must be able to determine G for the phases in the reaction at any P and T
To integrate properly we must know how V and S vary with P and T (hence the calculus), but we shall simplify the math and assume V and S are constant
This simplifies our math considerably (but may lead to some errors)
We can check the validity of our assumptions by comparing to experiments or more rigorous calculations (performed by computer)
The P and T corrections can be done separately in any order, since we are concerned only with the initial and final states, not the path the system followed to get from one to the other
All of these questions depend on reactions comparing 2 or more phases
Consider the phase diagram (as we anticipate igneous petology)
We can apply thermodynamics qualitatively to assess these diagrams
From dG = VdP - SdT we can deduce that at constant pressure: dG = -SdT
And since S must be (+) G for a phase decreases as T increases