The document discusses cells in the pancreas that produce insulin. It specifically focuses on beta cells, which are cells that express the Ptf1a gene. Ptf1a is essential for formation of the entire pancreas in both mice and humans, including beta cells that secrete insulin. By studying Ptf1a-expressing cells, scientists hope to better understand how to maintain or restore beta cell function. The document also discusses endoplasmic reticulum stress linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Studies in cell cultures and mouse models show that obesity causes ER stress, which leads to suppression of insulin signaling through JNK activation and IRS-1 phosphorylation.

1. Cells: Honors Biology ~ Edgar

2. Harvard BioVisions

15. Insulin

20. Cells in the pancreas of a 1-week-old mouse that express the Ptf1a transcription factor gene are revealed in this photograph. The Ptf1a gene has been genetically engineered to express a bacterial enzyme that produces a dark blue color. In both mice and humans, Ptf1a is essential for formation of the entire pancreas, including insulin-secreting beta cells. By tracing the “cell lineage,” or family history, of Ptf1a-expressing cells, scientists hope to learn more about how to maintain—or restore—the function of beta cells. At top right is the sausage-shaped spleen (light orange), and at bottom is the duodenum. Photo by Fong Cheng Pan, Ph.D., research fellow, Department of Cell & Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University. Courtesy of Christopher V. E. Wright, D.Phil.

24. Red arrows indicate Beta Cells

38. Proinsulin - Orange

50. Igf-1

51. Insulin-like growth factor 1

53. Looking good. The pancreas of a mouse after it was transplanted with human beta cells ( left ) looks similar to that of an animal that produces insulin normally ( right ). CREDIT: Narushima et al., Nature Biotechnology Brimming with b's. Newfound cells in the pancreas give rise to neurons (red) and insulin-producing b cells (green). CREDIT: SEABERG ET AL. , NATURE BIOTECHNOLOGY The full picture. Human ES cells can eventually give rise to cells that resemble pancreatic beta cells (labeled β).

54. Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Links Obesity, Insulin Action, and Type 2 Diabetes Umut Özcan,1 Qiong Cao,1 Erkan Yilmaz,1 Ann-Hwee Lee,2 Neal N. Iwakoshi,2 Esra Özdelen,1 Gürol Tuncman,1 Cem Görgün,1 Laurie H. Glimcher,2,3 Gökhan S. Hotamisligil1 Obesity contributes to the development of type 2 diabetes, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Using cell culture and mouse models, we show that obesity causes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. This stress in turn leads to suppression of insulin receptor signaling through hyperactivation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and subsequent serine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate–1 (IRS-1). Mice deficient in X-box–binding protein–1 (XBP-1), a transcription factor that modulates the ER stress response, develop insulin resistance. These findings demonstrate that ER stress is a central feature of peripheral insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. Pharmacologic manipulation of this pathway may offer novel opportunities for treating these common diseases.

57. Published by AAAS U. Özcan et al., Science 306, 457 -461 (2004) Fig. 1. Increased ER stress in obesity Fig. 1. Increased ER stress in obesity. Dietary (HFD-induced) and genetic ( ob/ob ) models of mouse obesity were used to examine markers of ER stress in liver tissue compared with age- and sex-matched lean controls. ( A ) ER stress markers including eIF2 phosphorylation (p-eIF2 ), PERK phosphorylation (p-PERK), and JNK activity (p-c-Jun) were examined in the liver samples of the male mice (C57BL/6) that were kept either on regular diet (RD) or high-fat diet (HFD) for 16 weeks. ( B ) Examination of the same ER stress markers in the livers of male ob/ob and wild-type (WT) lean mice at the age of 12 to 14 weeks. ( C ) Northern blot analysis of GRP78 mRNA in the livers of mice with dietary-induced obesity and lean controls. ( D ) Northern blot analysis of GRP78 mRNA in the livers of ob/ob and WT lean mice. Ethidium bromide staining is shown as a control for loading and integrity of RNA.