Bread is made through a process of mixing ingredients like flour, water, yeast, salt and sometimes milk or eggs. The ingredients are mixed together into a dough which is then allowed to rise through fermentation, as the yeast converts sugars into gases that aerate the dough. The risen dough is shaped and a final proofing allows it to rise further before baking. Understanding the roles of each ingredient and managing the fermentation process properly through steps like knocking back the dough is important to produce bread with the desired texture and structure.

1. Bread Fabrication

2. Introduction
 Bread is a staple food prepared- cooking dough –flour and water.
 Manufacturing process in which an item is made (fabricated) from raw
or semi-finished materials instead of being assembled from ready-
made components or parts.
 And often additional ingredients.
 Dough’s are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads
are steamed, fried, or baked on an unsoiled skillet (frying pan).
 May be leavened or unleavened.
 When yeast is used as a raising agent, it gives bread its characteristic
texture.
 Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are
common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients,
such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit , vegetables , nuts ,walnuts
or seeds.

3.  Inner part of the bread- Crumb, Outer hard
portion – Crust
 Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods.
 Bread is the staple food in Europe, European-
derived cultures such as the Americas, and
the Middle East/North Africa,
 But staple food in Asia- Rice
 Bread is usually made from a wheat
flour dough that is cultured with yeast,
allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven.
 Common wheat( Bread wheat)- High gluten-
become spongy but other wheat are also used.

4.  Bread making can be said to be an art which
carried out scientifically.
 Ingredients should be of good quality but
optimum temperatures and humidity levels
should be strictly maintained.
 How ingredients should be treated depends
upon quality of bread.
 For good quality bread one should know the
commodities used and also the role of individual
commodities in the process.

5.  Once the role of commodities is understood-
can be modified to produce different structure.
 This helps to evaluate breads and if a particular
bread has to turned out to be as it was
supposed to, then what went wrong with the
recipe can be related.
 Not only ingredients but process affect too.
 Thus if a bread does not have good structure,
the quality of the flour is not to be blamed, as
the problem could be in kneading , baking style,
time, and temperature.

6. Understanding Baking

7.  It is not enough to have knowledge of
commodities, working process, and types of
aeration when it comes to bread making.
 One also need an understanding of baking to
ensure the product would not be substandard or
spoilt, resulting in waste of time and materials.
 Many factors affect the baking temperature and
the baking time.
Points to be understood are as follows:

8.  Shape and size of products being
baked
 Thicker the product, the longer it takes to bake.
 The baking temperature must be lower, or else
the outer portion will be burnt before middle is
cooked.
 Thin products will bake more quickly, and
 Faster when oven temperature is higher.
 Oven Humidity
 Oven humidity is critical for some type of baked
products.
 A cake will need a pan of water in the oven to

9.  The result of a cake should be with a flat top
and a crust of a pleasing color.
 On the other hand, an oven full of cakes will
provide sufficient humidity for proper crust
formation.
Oven Overloading
 Factor to be consider because temperature fall
when oven filled.
 The drop in temperature depends product being
baked and the size and type of oven used.
 To counter this factor, use a higher initial
temperature.
 While placing items to be baked on tray, place
them in an interlocking manner to allow

10. Density of product being baked
 Product containing a high proportion of sugar, fat,
eggs, and fruits will need a lower temperature, and
will take longer to bake.
 Some time may need to line baking trays with
several layers of paper insulation to prevent the
bottom from being burned.
 Type of Oven
 Commercial pastry oven are thermostatically (A
device, as in a home heating system, a refrigerator, or an air
conditioner, that automatically responds to temperature changes
and activates switches controlling the equipment). controlled
by three switches-
 one maintains the preset temperature and

11.  This flexibility allows a chef to bake different
items more effectively by having more or less
heat in the area required.
 A convention (fan –forced) oven maintains an
even temperature throughout the oven.

12. Making

13.  Every ingredients have particular role to play.
 Ingredients, however, perform well only when
certain conditions are met and are highly
dependent on each other to perform that
particular function to the desired level.
 For example, yeast performs well in the
presence of sugar as well as moisture.

14. Flour

15.  Flour is the main ingredient used in
making breads.
 There are various types of flour such as
wheat, rye, barley, etc.
 Usually, strong flours are used in bread
making.
 Whole-wheat flours have lesser
concentration of gluten as the bran content
is increased.
 This causes a weaker structure in the
bread.

16.  The presence of the bran particles also allows a
higher moisture absorption, resulting in a short
fermentation time.
 When the germ is present in the flour there is a
higher enzyme activity, as a result of which the
gluten develops faster and the breads are made
with a shorter fermentation time.
 Another reason for wanting a low PH dough is to avoid starch
degradation. Flours have enzymes (amylase) that end up
degrading it. But that enzymatic activity is stopped with
a PH<4.5. This is well known with 100% rye breads:
An Amylase is
an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch into sugars.
Amylase is present in the saliva of humans and some other
mammals, where it begins the chemical process of digestion.

17. Water

18.  Water is the most commonly used liquid in
bread making.
 It moistens the flour and helps in forming the
dough.
 It also aids in the baking process.
 Water performs the following three main
function in the bread dough.
1. Helps hydrate and moisten the insoluble
proteins.
2. Disperses (Spread) the yeast amongst the
entire dough.
3. Bind the flour and other ingredients into a

19.  As the fermentation time increases it becomes
essential to reduce the water content to effect a
higher ripening of the dough.
 The amount of water present will also greatly
affect the texture of the final dough obtained.
 Hard water has higher alkalinity.
 As the yeast works best in an acidic medium,
fermentation can be slower in the initial stages if
hard water is used.
 However as the fermentation proceeds, the
acids produced will neutralized this alkalinity
and then fermentation will continue at a brisk
pace.

20.  Also, the alkalinity and the mineral salts will
tighten the gluten and thus the dough will be
firmer.
 Very hard water also has magnesium sulphate
which has a retarding action on the yeast.
 Bread can be made with both hard and soft
water, provided the physical adjustments are
made.
 When the dough is kneaded for longer duration
of time, the temperature in the dough increases
due to friction.
 This has to be watched carefully as the
temperature of the dough should not go beyond

21.  In such case a baker often use ice to make the
dough.
 Ice keeps the fermentation activity of yeast at
an ideal rate for gluten ripening.
 The quantity used will vary depending upon the
time of kneading of the dough or the friction
factor, and the dough temperature required.
 Ice must be in the form of flaked ice so that it is
evenly distributed in the bread and causes an
even cooling of the dough.
 It can be safely said that 5 kg of ice will
equivalent to 4 liters of water.

22. Yeast

23.  Yeast is single cell microorganism which causes
the leavening in the dough.
 It converts the natural sugar in the flour into tiny
bubbles of carbon dioxide that are trapped in
the dough.
 During baking these bubbles expand to give the
texture and lightness to the dough.
 Yeast is available in two form-dry and
compressed.
 The ideal temperature for yeast to act is 25 ͦ C.
 The primary function of the yeast is to change
sugar into carbon dioxide so that the dough is
aerated.

24.  When dispersed (spread) in water with yeast
food (sugar), the yeast exudes (release) an
enzyme that changes sucrose into dextrose,
which is then absorbed by the yeast cell.
 Inside the yeast cell, this is broken down into
carbon dioxide and other by- products.
 Yeast works best within a temperature range of
25 to 40 ͦ C.
 Above this, fermentation becomes rapid but the
yeast gets weaker successively and finally killed
at 60 ͦ C.
 Yeast can never dissolve completely in water,
though it is just dispersed well into it.

25.  Compressed yeast must be cold to touch and
must possess a creamy color breaking with a
clean fracture.

26.  If it is light in color, and is dry, warm, with a
pungent odour, it is in poor condition and the
quality of bread might not be good.
 If it is dark brown in color with a soft sticky
consistency and an unpleasant odour, it is
unsuitable for use.

27. Salt

28.  Main function of salt is to control the action of
yeast as it slows down the fermentation
process.
 It should be mixed with flour for best results.
 It also provides flavor to the bread.
 It also affects the quality of the crumb, crust,
and color of the baked product.
 So slat mainly perform the following functions:
1. Imparts flavor
2. Gives stability to gluten (don’t let it gluten
weak)
3. Control the rate of fermentation
4. Retains moisture
5. Affect the crust color and crumb, due to control

29. Effect of less and excess salt
Less Salt More Salt
Large volume- as there is
more breakdown of sugar
into carbon dioxide
Tightening of the gluten
gives a dense structure
Less crust color Dark crust color as sugars are
not broken down
Weak crumb structure Crumb structure resembles
cheese, as not enough gas is
produced

30. Sugar

31.  The main function of sugar is to act as food for
yeast.
 It helps in developing flavor and color.
 Sugar is the primary food that the yeast feeds
on to produce alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 With the exception of lactose, yeast can break
down all the other sugars present in the dough,
either naturally in the flour or as an addition of
sugar, mainly sucrose or sometime, maltose.
 Flour naturally contain about two and a half
(2.5%) to three (3%) percent of sugar in the
form of sucrose and maltose.
 This is enough for the yeast in the initial parts of

32.  However in the final proof when maximum of the
sugar is required to be broken down for an
optimum rise, the natural sugars are exhausted
and the addition of sucrose or maltose is
required.
Impact of sugar
 Sugar has a solvent effect on gluten and this
greatly affects the quality of the crumb in
bread loaves.
 To counteract this, a mineral improver is used
and excess salt is used as salt has a stabilizing
effect on the gluten.
Impacts are as follows:

33.  Sugar is the primary food for the yeast.
 It helps improve the crust color.
 Sugar also act as preservative and this behaves
as an anti-staling agent.
 Some sugar act as bread improvers.
 Sugar helps the bread to retain moisture,
thereby keeping the bread moist.
 Some sugar imparts flavor, for example,
treacle(Molasses), honey, and demerara sugar.

34. Impact of Sugar in Bread
Less Sugar Excessive Sugar
Not enough volume Large volume- as there is
more sugar available for
breakdown
Less crust color High crust color
Weak crumb structure Weak structure of bread
Lower yeast activity as yeast
works best in 10 percent sugar
solution
More yeast activity as yeast
works best in 10 percent sugar

35. Milk

36.  It makes the bread whiter and softer, and
provides moisture and a distinctive flavor.
 Milk also has physical effect on bread in the
form of the tightening effect of gluten by the
action of ‘casein’.
 However boiling and pasteurization neutralizes
that effect to a great extent.
 Lactose or milk sugar is the only sugar which
cannot be fermented by yeast and hence it
remains in the dough right till the end, resulting
in a good crust color.
 Milk is generally used in powdered and
skimmed form and hence the amount of water

37. Egg

38.  Eggs are used for richness and to give lightness
and color.
 Eggs are again rich in protein and hence will
tighten the gluten standards, but this effect
gets balanced, as the fat in yolk helps in
soften the gluten as well.
 The use of eggs will yield softer bread.
 In many types of bread where a hard structure
is required like hard rolls, one does not use
eggs in the recipe.

39. Fat/Oil

40.  Provide flavor and softness to the texture.
 Different kinds of fats are used for different
breads such as olive oil for focacia (Italian
bread).

41.  Fats have a physical effect on breads rather
than any chemical reaction.
 Fat being a shortening agent reduces the
toughness of the gluten and mellows (smooth
and soft) the final product.
 As the amount of fat increases, the
fermentation rate decreases.
 This is because the fat will form a thin layer
on the yeast cell membrane hindering the
release and absorption of the materials.
 Thus yeast quantity is slightly increased.

42. Principles Behind Bread Making
 Functionality of Raw Materials and Process
Steps .
 Various stages in bread making and these are
very crucial as each stage has to be carefully
followed to obtain the desired result.
 Already discussed about ingredients now we
should know how ingredients are mixed and
baked to get perfect bread loaf.
 The principles behind bread making are as
follows:

43. Collecting the Mise-en-place
 For any pastry operations is to collect mise-en-
place.
 This allows doing things in planned manner
and the product also will come out of the
desired quality.
 One should concentrate over weighting the
ingredients and be sure about its right
temperature.
 Ice water is not substituted by tap cold water.
 Weight using a digital scale, as accuracy of
ingredients is very important in pastry.

44.  It should have the fresh smell.
 It should be firm and should crumble easily.
 The yeast shown be of ‘ fawn’ color.
 It should become liquid if creamed with little
sugar.

45.  Selection of :
 Bread tin
 Thick and heavy tray/pan
 Moulds
 Greasing oil/ butter
 Brush etc

46. Mixing the ingredients
 Mixing the ingredients involves much more
than just mixing everything together to form
a dough.
 Many methods in which bread can mixed or
kneaded.
 Different method is applied for mixing
ingredients.
 Some are mixed and used instantly where as
some are mixed and left over for ferment etc.
 Broadly these mixing method are classified
under three heading such as:

47. Proving
 The next step is to let the dough to ferment.
 ‘Proving’ means to let the dough rise to at
least double in size.
 This is done to let the yeast break down
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 The gases thus released help to ferment the
dough and distribute uniformly.
 The ideal temperature for proving is 32 ͦ C.
 Proving is done in three stages.

48.  First proving: Done after kneading
 Second/ Intermediate Proving: After
“knocking back”.
 Final proving : After shaping the bread.
Fermentation is done for the following reasons.
1. It helps in production of carbon dioxide gas
which aerates the dough.
2. It helps to condition the dough.
3. It helps to reduce the proteins to simpler
nitrogenous compound for growth and
development of the yeast.

49.  The enzymes are active during the fermentation
period.
 The sugars are broken down to release heat
which causes the temperature of the dough to
rise.
 This rise can be controlled by the speed of
fermentation and the storage of temperature.

50. Knock Back
 The fermented dough is punched down
to knock off (remove) the air bubbles that had
developed during the intermediate (between two
of three) proving.
 This is so done to redistribute the yeast and
the other ingredients evenly all through the
dough.
 After knocking back the dough is allowed to
rest for a while as the gluten tends to stretch
and it will be difficult to mould the bread.
 It is important not to over knead the dough in

51.  The knock back is also done to equalize
the temperature in the dough.

52. Dividing and Scaling
 This is use to portion dough pieces of the
required weight.
 It is important to rest the dough before dividing
and shaping is done.
 The scaling of the dough that needs to be
baked in a mould will depend upon the size of
the mould.
 Though there is no particular formula to
calculate the weight, normally a loaf is
calculated by pounds, so one pound loaf of
bread will be baked in a one pound mould.

53. Bread Size
Breads baked in loaf Made is mould of
specific weight like
1(453.59 gm) lb/ 2 lb
Bread rolls 25-30 g per roll
Burger buns 90-100 g
French baguette 300-350 g per loaf
Bread loaves not made in
moulds
450-650 g loaves

54. Shaping/panning

55.  Divided pieces of dough are shaped in the
form of loaves or rolls.
 It should be done in a sparingly (infrequent
manner) floured surface, handling the
dough gently
 And, placing it for final proving.
 After a few minutes of resting, the dough
reaches its optimum ripening.
 Thus the dough is scaled and then shaped.
 As the dough is deflated during knock back,
it has to be carefully manipulated again as it
becomes more resilient.

56.  The final moulding is essential as the shape
of the product and the crumb structure is
affected.
 This step is known as panning, which means
to shape the bread and put in a pan.

57. Final Proving
 As the dough is being shaped it is temporarily
‘degassed’ and the gluten tightens.
 If the dough is mature and the moulding
done correctly, the skin surface will be
smooth.
 The objective of the final proof is to allow the
loaf to expand completely before baking.
 The production of the gas and the
breakdown of the sugars must be vigorous
and the gluten should be in such a condition
that it is strong enough to hold the gases and

58. Scoring

59.  It is the process of giving marks on the top of
the dough with a sharp blade knife.
 It helps the bread to expand during baking
without cracking.
 This step is not mandatory and chefs can
choose to do scoring to give a rustic look to the
bread.
 However certain breads, such as classical
French baguette, have scoring marks on
them.
 Note: The blade used to score –lame
 French word simply meaning blade.

61. Baking
 Bread is ready to be baked once it has
proved to optimum.
 Under proving of the dough will yield in
cracked loaf.
 Over proving will make the bread collapse in
the final baking process.
 The bread is said to have proved well, if it
spring back when depressed slightly.
 During baking, dough goes through the
following three stages.

62. First stage
 The oven spring occurs and the gas bubbles
in the dough expand and it rises rapidly.
 The yeast activity increases rapidly in the
oven and the activity and the activity of the
yeast stops as it kills the yeast at 60 ͦ C.
 The gas in the dough expands and so do the
steam and the alcohol.
 This cause a sudden burst in the volume of
the bread and is called the ‘oven spring’.

63. Second Stage
 The dough solidifies because of the
coagulation (the action or process of a liquid,
especially blood, changing to a solid or semi-
solid state) of proteins and transform into
bread.
 Here the gases escape out of the dough
leaving a dispersion of holes,
 which are responsible for the sponginess of
the bread.

64. Third Stage
 The dough gets its color and crust.
 Enzymes are active till about 80 to 90 ͦ C
producing sugars even beyond the yeast
activity.
 This helps in the coloring of the crust.
 The enzyme activity helps in the crumb, crust
color and bloom of the bread.
 As the baking proceeds, weight is lost by the
evaporation of the moisture from the crust.

65.  As the moisture is driven off, the crust takes
on a higher temperature, reaching the
temperature of the oven.
 The sugar caramelized and the breakdown of
the soluble protein blends to form the
attractive color of the crust.

66. Fault in Bread Making
 Volume
 Bloom of Crust
 General Shape
 Color of the crumb
 Even Texture
 Sheen of crumb (shine)
 Moistness
 Flavor

67. Common Fault in Bread