This document discusses the fundamental aspects of literacy, emphasizing the importance of reading and writing as integral components of communicative competence. It explores emergent literacy as a gradual development influenced by language exposure and environmental factors, and outlines the challenges in reading and writing proficiency, along with factors contributing to difficulties in these areas. Additionally, it presents strategies for literacy education and the different stages of writing and spelling development.

1. Reading and
writing
Book Review
By Group 2

2. INTRODUCTION
 The acts of reading and writing are integral to
literacy, In this chapter, we will therefore first
construct an overall understanding of literacy by
contemplating the current views on the concept.
Then look at reading and writing separately. With
regard to each, the act per se will first be analysed
to identify the points of challenge facing the
learner; this will be followed by discussion on the
development of proficiency. In conclusion, we will
consider some difficulties and problems which
could arise

3. LITERACY - The concept
 Understanding that literacy concerns all facets of
communicative competence requires us to
recognize that literacy practices might differ from
the context of one family, community and system
to another. This in turn reflects onto each of us
individually. What are your communicative
strengths? How did you come by these - what role
did your environment play in the process? In
which types and styles of literacy do you think that
you still need to grow? How do these needs also
reflect your environment? Your understanding of
emergent literacy will help you to answer such
questions.

4. Emergent literacy
 Emergent literacy is key to the new
conception of literacy. The term describes the
child's developing awareness of the inter-
relatedness of oral and written language.
 The principle of emergent literacy is based on
the assumption that literacy as a
communicative competence also develops
gradually from within the child in accordance
with these same abilities.

5. Elements of Emergent Literacy
Three essential elements of emergent literacy
are :
 Something to get it started
 Something to sustain it
 Something to focus it

6. Literacy education - 01
The following statements about literacy education
which have been adapted and extended from
Sampson et al. (1995) :
 The single most influential factor that contributes
to the emergence of literacy is the level of
language that the child brings to the activities and
experiences involved.
 Literacy must truly permeate an environment for
that environment to fully support the emergent
literacy of its children.
 Learning situations must be designed so that each
learner will be challenged to acquire the skills and
knowledge necessary for performing literately

7. Literacy education - 02
 The development of reading and writing
proficiency is not 'an assembly-line process'.
Direct instruction in 'how to read and write‘ only, is
of limited value.
 Understanding text does not necessarily result
from knowing how to read words. The process
requires the interaction of personal meanings and
knowledge with those inherent in the text.
 Similarly, producing coherent text depends more
on the interaction of personal intent, knowledge
and thinking than on knowing how to spell and
write specific words.

8. READING - Circumscription
 Burns, Roe and Ross (1992) call reading a life-
skill, and have identified nine aspects of the
reading process which combine to produce the
reading product: sensory, perceptual, sequential,
experiential, thinking, learning, associational,
affective and constructive aspects.
 In processing running text, readers use three
sources of information, namely semantic, syntactic
and graphophonic information (Pike et al.,1997;
Sampson et al., 1995)

9. Decoding and word recognition
 Decoding is a complex process, entailing various
memory, attention and perceptual skills, both
visual and auditory (Marsh & Hallet, 1999; Vacca
et al, 2000;Everatt, 2002; Hatcher & Snowling,
2002; McEwan, 2002; Robertson & Bakker, 2002;
Singleton, 2002)
 Shanker and Eckwall (1998) point out that
learning to decode, according to research
findings, is more highly related to phonological
awareness than to other well-known measures
such as alphabet knowledge, intelligence and
reading readiness

10. READING - Orthography
 The decoding operation is strongly influenced
by the degree of regular sound-symbol
relationship in the orthography of the
language of the text.
 Orthographic differences between languages
complicate the task of decoding for learners
who have learned to read in their mother
tongue and are then required to read in an
additional language (Birch, 2002).

11. READING - Comprehension
 Communication by means of printed text
depends on comprehension. Indeed,
comprehension is so integral to reading that
Pike et al. (1997) believe reading and
comprehension to be synonymous.
 Manzo and Manzo (1995) regard the act of
silently reading and comprehending a single
page of print as one of the most highly
integrated functions that we as humans
perform.

12. Transformational comprehension
Transformational comprehension has the
following attributes:
 It is dispositional
 It is mediational
 It is metacognitive and strategic
 It implies effective memory, and the
acquisition and application of a rich fund of
information.
 It articulates with the related language arts
(Manzo & Manzo, 1995).

13. Development of reading maturity
 Manzo and Manzo (1995) provide this thought
provoking idea: promoting learners' progress
toward reading maturity rather than merely
toward reading competence.
 Phases of development involved in achieving
reading maturity as emergent literacy,
learning to read, and achieving independent
reading proficiency with regard to texts at
various levels of complexity.

14. Reading difficulties
 An inadequate base/process of exposure to
environmental
 An inadequate culture of literacy and/or learning in
the home
 Emotional factors
 Life experiences that are limited or different from
those of the classmates
 Sensory factors
 Perceptual difficulties
 Limited cognitive potential.
 Language factors
 Education factors

15. WRITING - Circumscription
 There are two chief components involved in
writing, meaningful communication
(composition), and encoding (transcription)
 Composition concerns more than writing; it is
primarily about thinking and represents the
essence of the writer's communicative powers
of construction and tone
 Transcription is the process of converting
what is being composed onto the page

16. Writing as expression and
composition
 Browne (1999: 93) describes the composition
of text as “the intention to mean‘”, and
recommends that children should experience
a wide range of audiences in order to learn
how to write in different ways and suit their
writing to the situation and the reader
 Writing in a language other than the mother
tongue surely impacts on the learner's
expression of ideas in many ways

17. Spelling
 Spelling is generally perceived to be more difficult
to master than decoding and word recognition in
reading, since it requires the production of an
exact sequence of letters, appears to contain
limited linguistic clues and calls for constant
phoneme-to-grapheme decisions
 Differences between the orthographies of the
mother tongue and an additional language of
learning complicate the task significantly

18. Development of written composition
Five stages in the writing process that could
usefully constitute a 'master plan' for teaching
writing :
 Prewriting
 Drafting
 Revising
 Editing
 Publishing

19. Development of spelling
Five stages are distinguished in development of
spelling (Manzo & Manzo, 1995; Bean &
Bouffler, 1997; Browne, 1999):
 scribbling
 drawing
 non-phonetic lettering
 phonetic (often invented) spelling
 conventional (standard) spelling.

20. Writing and spelling difficulties
Factors generally related to difficulties in writing are :
 An inadequate base/process of exposure to
environmental print during the period of emergent
literacy that affects learners' experience of the
communicative and constructive nature of print.
 An inadequate culture of literacy and/or learning in the
home
 Emotional factors
 Life experiences
 Sensory factors.
 Visual-motor and perceptual difficulties
 Limited cognitive potential
 Language factors
 Education factors

21. Thank You
Group 2
1. Zainar. M. Salam
2. Fauziyah Amin
3. Herawati Abuhaer
4. Fatimah Rezkyana
5. Sumarlin