1. The document discusses concepts used in oral literature such as popular culture, discourse, oral testimony, text, and narrative/narration. 2. Popular culture refers to customs, beliefs, and material possessions that are widely accepted by most people in a society. It emerged after WWII due to industrialization and mass media. Discourse involves how people communicate and use language to structure their lives and society. Oral testimony provides verbal statements about past events. 3. These concepts are important for understanding oral literature and the cultures that produce it. Researchers must consider the context and language use within a society to best analyze oral traditions.

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NAME : OMWOYO BISMARCKONYINKWA
REG NO : E13/10565/15
FACULTY : FEDCOS
COURSE : BED (ARTS)
DEPARTMENT: CIEM
UNIT TITLE : GENRES OF ORAL LITERATURE
UNIT CODE : LITT 312
LECTURER : DR KWEYA
TASK : Discuss the following concepts as used in oral literature;popular culture,
discourse , oral testimony, text, and narrative/narration.
DATE OF SUBMISSION : 16TH OCTOBER 2017

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Over the time, there have emerged many attempts discussing on what makes something to be oral.
Orality is often, but not always, open. Orality is also public, both in its production, display and in its
eventual consumption. Anybody reading Taban lo Liyong’s “Popular Culture Of East Africa”, could be
challenged by the manner in which he his introduction , hence understand on what actually happens in
trying to make interpretations concerning cultural phenomena. Indeed we live in interesting times,
turbulent times, chaotic times, and heart-searching times of what makes oral literature to be oral.
Therefore specific terms have been used to give out extensive interpretations the verbal art phenomena.
They include: Popular art/culture, discourse, oral testimony, text, and narrative/narration.
Firstly, popular art/culture has often been found within the mainstreams of oral literature or verbal art
at large. Popular customs are invented, and associated with societies possessing modern
communications systems. Popular culture is based on rapid simultaneous global connections through
communication technology. For instance, soccer is an example of a popular culture which started as a
folk culture but was popularized and then globalized. Many other sports are similar to soccer as
elements of popular culture; though the distribution of each sport is different, they all share the
element of commercial appeal, with fans willing to pay for events. Folk customs are often anonymous
while popular culture originates in more developed countries as part of the market for recreation and
the disposable income to purchase these material goods. Popular culture varies more in time than in
place because it diffuses rapidly to places with a sufficiently high level of economic development to
acquire the material possessions associated with popular culture.
Popular culture has been said to have emerged after the end of World War II due to industrial
revolution. It is a product of the economically more developed countries.
They arise from a combination of advances in industrial technology and increased leisure time. At this
period, innovation in mass media led to significant cultural and social changes. Similarly, the rise of
popular culture merged with consumer culture, image culture, media culture, and culture for mass
production. For example; In the United States nodes or hearths of innovation for popular culture
include: Holly wood, California for the film industry, Madison Avenue in New York for advertising
agencies. In music industry, popular music originated around 1900 out of folk music. The first music
industry was developed in New York, to provide songs for the music hall and vaudeville. This area
later came to be known as Tin Pan Alley. Diffusion of American popular music started during the
World War II. English became the language of popular music.
What is then popular culture? To understand the same, we have to consider our understanding of
culture. In my perspective, culture is a learned behavior of people, which is constantly changing and
easily lost because it exists only in our minds. Culture may include: Belief systems, languages, social
relationships, Institutions and organizations, Material goods - food, clothing, buildings, tools, and
machines. It also refers to a way of life as lived by a people in a particular moment in history; their
political, social, economical, and religious organization. Popular on the other handdescribes what
belongs to the people, the majority; the materials and social ways of life that is for the mass people.
Therefore popular culture is a culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits
despite differences in other personal characteristics; a culture that is intended to represent the common

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and the everyday experiences of people in a particular society. The term ‘popular culture’ was coined
in 19th century. Traditionally, it was associated with the people of the lower class, folk people as
opposed to those of high class.
Consequently, in verbal art, popular culture has been used to denote aspect of life ranging from social,
economic, political, and religion of a given human society, to a peculiar customs of that given society,
and how they help a researcher to give an interpretation. Popular culture seemingly suggests that some
elements of culture are thrust upon us against our will, whereas other forms of culture are either made
or chosen by us. This approach to popular art is associated with folk culture, as opposed to culture
produced in elite institutions such as museums .The whole idea of popular culture is constructed
within the local level in specific communities. This is because the local people understand their own
culture themselves and are in a position of giving an account of whatpopular culture means to them;
what they usually do in everyday life ,their values ,attitudes, images, and so on. A researcher therefore
must take into consideration of the context of the availability of his/her task. As a researcher of popular
culture, the focus should be on how this said culture has enhanced the well being of a given society
especially on how it is producing social norms, establishing social boundaries, creating rituals that
generate social solidarity, generating innovation, and paving the way for social change in that
community/society.
Secondly, discourse is that broad terminology that researcher often take into consideration in fieldwork
studies. Discourse is spoken or written communication between people, a language use in context. It is
concerned on how people think and communicate about themselves and others. How do they use
language when talking about things, the social organization of society, and the relationships among
and between all the three. Discourse typically emerges out of social interactions with people of a given
society; and by virtue of giving structure and order to language and thought, it structures and orders
people’s lives, relationships with others, and society. It thus shapes on how they think and know about
a phenomenon in any point in time. In this sense, discourse is seen as a productive force because it
shapes the speaker’s thoughts, ideas, beliefs, values, identities, interactions with others, and their
general behavior. In doing so it produces much of what occurs within a society. In this case therefore,
discourse becomes a conceptual generation of conversation within a given modality and context of
communication.
The whole idea of discourse has been associated to a French social theorist; Michel Foucault who
developed a notion of discourse in his early work, especially the Archaeology of knowledge .
Foucault's definition of discourse can be summarized as systems of thoughts composed of ideas,
attitudes, courses of action, beliefs and practices thatsystematically construct the subjects and the
worlds of which they speak. He traces the role of discourses in wider social processes of legitimating
and power, emphasizing the construction of currenttruths, how they are maintained and what power
relations they carry with them. Foucault later theorized that discourse is a medium through which
power relations produce speaking subjects. He further argued that power and knowledge are inter-
related and therefore every human relationship is a struggle and negotiation of power. Foucault further
stated that power is always present and can both produce and constrain the truth. Discourse according

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to Foucault is related to power as it operates by rules of exclusion. Discourse therefore is controlled by
objects, what can be spoken of; ritual, where, and how one may speak; and the privileged, who may
speak. Strictly speaking, it can be argued that Foucault wants us to understand that discourse is a body
of text meant to mean to communicate specific information and knowledge by use of language;
whether written, spoken or expressive use of language. It describes a formal way of thinking that can
be expressed through language.
As a matter of fact, discourse is part and parcel of any given society .Researchers always considered the
importance of language in use for the successful study of verbal art. The way a speaker uses language
influences his own perspective concerning a certain aspectof life. Through language, be it body
movements or speech, and the specific choice of words provides the vocabulary, expressions and
perhaps the style needed to communicate. Always in research studies of oral literature, the context in
which the particular usage of language takes place becomes paramount. This means thatlanguage
usage is very unique in nature when it comes in deducing meaning. The use of language is always
implicative to the speaker who happens to use it. Therefore through firm foundation of the knowledge
in discourse, a researcher of oral literature is able to situate the meaning of conversations depending on
the immediate context. For many people around the world; particularly in areas where history and
traditions are still conveyed more through speech than in writing; the transmission of oral literature
from one generation to the next lies at the heart of culture, language and memory. Very often, local
languages act as vehicles for the transmission of unique forms of cultural knowledge.
Third, oral testimony has been associated with an individual giving a verbal statement to a group of
people. The essence of this is to provide information regarding the occurrence of past events. The term
has its origin from the epistemology of testimony. The epistemology of testimony is concerned with the
conditions under which testimony leads to justified beliefs and knowledge. It is not the only field to
have this concern, though. Pitched at this level of description, other fields of study too have a
significant interest in testimonial justification and knowledge. Epistemologists of testimony have
focused disproportionately on the epistemological character and implications of oral testimony. The
philosophical literature has had very little to say about other disciplines’ principles or methods bearing
specifically on the credibility or the justified acceptance of oral testimony. Therefore, epistemologists
have preferred to use highly simplified fictional examples in discussing oral testimony, rather than
seeking examples or case studies from fields having a focus on it. Oral testimony, in the broadest sense,
highlights the extent to which the epistemic value of testimony is a function of the ways in which
testimonial contexts are actively constructed by speakers, audiences, institutions and whole societies.
Why oral testimony? Testimony can be verbal, written, or signed. So why the focus orality? Social
epistemologists have converged on the use of simple examples of oral testimony, and especially oral
testimony from strangers, as illustrations and even as data points for their reasoning about testimony.
Commonly cited cases include testimony elicited by asking strangers for directions, or for the time of
day, or for mundane information like their birthdays, telephone numbers, or what they had for

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breakfast. The phenomenon of interest is the immediate uptake and acceptance of this sort of oral
testimony. The justified acceptability of testimony is typically a function of the work that goes into
constructing the context of communication with the speaker of a given society. The context of the
testimonial exchange is not a remote background consideration; it is of immediate significance to
uptake and justification of any phenomenon thata researcher wants to find out.
Therefore in verbal art, oral testimony has been used to consider on the various ways by which cultural
materials are handed down from one generation to another through oral transmission .So often, the
speaker of a given society does oral testimony with the main purpose of educating his/her listener,
concerning the importance of those particular phenomena as pertains to the given group. A good
example of oral testimony is when the speaker is giving a story to a child or a group of children. The
speaker therefore is needed to be as truthful as he could, however, the oral transmission may be
influenced by the external factors; the immediate environment of the speaker and the intended message
the speaker may want his listeners to hear. Oral testimony has hence provide meaningful information
regarding the social reality of a particular nation; how they came into existence,reasons of doing every
aspect of culture they do embrace .A researcher of oral literature therefore has found this type of
approach; meeting people from a given society and interviewing them orally, very useful in providing
information concerning a given ethnic group’s beliefs, attitudes, values, and practices. Through this a
researcher appreciates the every culture and treats each as a unique one from other existing cultural
practices.
Forth, the issue of text has brought contention among scholars. Some argue that a text anything written
or printed; the original words of a piece of writing or a speech. In my perspective, a text is anything
that can be seen, heard, or felt. For instance, pictures, diagrams,images, music, sounds, all are texts.
What is a text then? A text is anything that conveys a message through words, images, or sounds that
influences on how one feels. The message may be perceived differently from one person to another;
however, all texts offer some types of information that can be interpreted. A text refers to a stretch of
language, either in speech, or in writing that offers a specific meaning depending on the context.
Taken together, texts reaching down to the beginning of the sect as well as live experience and
recorded homilies give an idea of the status and means of the art of preaching, though we are farfrom
being able to trace changes that inevitably occurred in topics and homiletic strategies over the long
period of four hundred years. Suffice it to mention that, to my limited knowledge, long hagiographic
narratives such as those composed by Jangopal, or the narratives of Bajid discussed by Imre Bangha in
this volume, do not feature in homilies as long extracts or full length texts. Portions of Raghavdas’s
Bhaktamāl are however read out by preachers andmay thus form the substitute of a homily. Kathas
based on the Bhāgavata-purāṇ a also enjoy popularity.The text, especially Book 11, which is relevant to
ascetics, has always inspired sants to compose their own versions.
In verbal art, the researcher is concern with speeches, debates, live presentations and other oral texts.
Here the text is primarily transmitted orally. It may include the expressiveness of language such as;
body movement, gestures, and facial expressions. Normally what happens when a speaker is giving a

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presentation concerning a phenomenon, he/she is bound to use different styles, ways to make their
information clear. There can also be possibilities of exaggerating an event .The researcher is required to
treat this kind of presentation as a text free from other information that may have been collected there
before from the same speaker on the same phenomena. Truly, everything happens and influences any
material collected at any moment depending on the context of the collection.
Lastly, a narrative is an account of people, events, and places usually presented in chronological order
ordinarily with a view to please or entertain. A narrative may be real or imagined, nonfictional or
fictional, whereas narration involves that part of oration whereby the speaker makes his/her
statements of facts. Normally, these accounts are handed down from one person to anotheror from
generation to generation. Other scholars have use ‘tale’ and ‘folktale’ to denote the same concept.
Narratives are a way through which people make sense of their lives, a vehicle for ordering and
organizing experiences, and a mechanism for both comprehending and constituting the social world.
Narratives, in short, fulfill a range of basic human needs hence a presentation of real-world events that
connects them in a story like way.
The origin of narratives/narration has been said to emerge from the evolutionism theory. This has been
one of the most influential of these theories, dating from the nineteenth century but casting a shadow
even today. The evolutionist interpretation of human history and society put forward supposes that the
nature of man is basically the same universally. The proponents of the theory include: Frazer, Tylor,
and Morgan. All imply that all human societies develop similar traits even if they are geographically
separate. Besides their application to the supposed unilinear evolution of institutions such as religion
or marriage, these speculative historical generalizations could also be brought to bear on the nature and
history of narratives. At that moment, the word ‘folklore’ became popular as a term to describe the
supposed customs, beliefs, and culture of both ‘early’ man and his presumed equivalents today:
contemporary ‘primitive’ peoples and the modern peasant, i.e. the ‘folk’ among whom could still,
supposedly, be found traces of the earlier stages of unilinear human evolution. When apparently
similar customs or beliefs could be detected in societies otherwise considered advanced, and then they
could be explained as ‘survivals’, remnants of the barbaric stages of the past. ‘Folklore’ even came to be
defined as ‘the study of survivals’, with the implication that its subject-matter which included
‘folktales’ was basically primitive due to old ideas passed on from previous generations. Therefore, oral
literature purely is a about origin, or in the relative primitiveness of different categories of tales. They
aim to reconstruct the ‘entire life history of the reflection of previous existence from which it has
evolved. The origin of man became the first narrative.
This general emphasis on questions about the life history of specific tales has been one of the
dominating influences in the recent study of oral prose narratives; most often referred to by this school
as ‘folktales’. Many interesting similarities have been discovered in the plots of stories to be found in
Africa and elsewhere—in Europe, in Arabia, in India, and, finally, in the New World, where they
probably travelled with African slaves. Attempts have also been made, following this approach, to
trace the historical and geographical origin of tales found in Africa. Some tales as it has been concluded
can be reckoned as being indigenous to Africa. An example of this is the famous tale based on the idea

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of a tug of war in which two large animals are induced by a smaller animal to pull against each other
believing that their opponent was really the small weak animal, which had thus tricked them.
Strictly speaking, narratives by their nature are very sophisticated works of verbal art. In fieldwork
studies, students of oral literature always find out that a speaker narrates a story from his own
perspective. Most narrators want their audience to enjoy their narratives. They therefore employ
various mechanisms of telling their story in order to please the audience. This enjoyment is the first
step towards interpretations and analysis. Similarly, narratives present the philosophical essence of the
society. The culture of the people is often presented in narratives. They help a researcher to answer the
following questions: How do people look at life issues? What do they value and decry? This means that
meaning is constructed from the rich and varied narratives across the globe.

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REFERENCE
 “Oral Literature In Africa,1770.”
(Ruth Finnegan)
 “Encounter With Oral Litetrature,1980.”
(Okumbu Miruka)
 “Popular Culture Of East Africa,1972.”
(Taban lo Liyong’)
 “Telling And Texts, 2015.”
(Francesca Orsini)