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![• There are 4 kinds of nitrogenous bases
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chargaff’s Rules
• Erwin Chargaff discovered that the percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] are
almost equal and the percentages of adnine [A] and thymine [T]
Chargaff’s Rule
X-Ray Evidence
• Rosalind Franklind
• British Scientist
• Used a technique called X-Ray diffraction
• Provided important clues about the structure of DNA
o
o
o
The Double Helix
• Francis Crick & James Watson
o Trying to understand the structure of DNA
by building models
o Unsuccessful until early 1953, Watson was
shown a copy of Franklin’s X-ray pattern
o “The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell
open and my pulse began to race.”
- James Watson
o Within weeks Watson and Crick had figured
out the structure of DNA
o Published their results in a historic one page
paper in April of 1953](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biology-chapter12notes-dnarna-110828132112-phpapp01/85/Biology-Chp-12-DNA-and-RNA-Notes-3-320.jpg)
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Similar to Biology - Chp 12 - DNA and RNA - Notes
Biology - Chp 12 - DNA and RNA - Notes
- 1. Chapter 12 DNA& RNA
- 2. 12 - 1DNA • In the middle of the 1900’s biologists were wondering how genes work. What they are made of, and how they determine the characteristics of organism • If the structures that carry genetic information could be identified, it might be possible to understand how genes control the inherited characteristics of living things The Structure of DNA • Scientists knew that genes were made of DNA but they still wanted to know how DNA did the following things 1. 2. 3. Nucleotides - ____________________________________________________________ • Made of 3 basic parts 1. 2. 3.
- 3. • There are4 kinds of nitrogenous bases 1. 2. 3. 4. Chargaff’s Rules • Erwin Chargaff discovered that the percentages of guanine [G] and cytosine [C] are almost equal and the percentages of adnine [A] and thymine [T] Chargaff’s Rule X-Ray Evidence • Rosalind Franklind • British Scientist • Used a technique called X-Ray diffraction • Provided important clues about the structure of DNA o o o The Double Helix • Francis Crick & James Watson o Trying to understand the structure of DNA by building models o Unsuccessful until early 1953, Watson was shown a copy of Franklin’s X-ray pattern o “The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race.” - James Watson o Within weeks Watson and Crick had figured out the structure of DNA o Published their results in a historic one page paper in April of 1953
- 4. • Watson and Crick’s model of DNA was a double helix, in which two strands were wound around each other • A double helix looks like a _____________________________________ or a __________________________________________ • Watson and Crick later discovered what held the two strands together • Hydrogen bonds could form between certain nitrogen bases and provide enough force to hold the two strands together • Hydrogen bonds could only form between certain base pairs adnine and thymine and guanine and cytosine • This principal is called ______________________________________. This explains ___________________________________________
- 5. Name ___________________________________ Date___________________ Per ____ 12 -1 Section Review 1. Describe Watson and Crick’s model of the DNA molecule. 2. What are the four kinds of bases found in DNA? 3. How did Watson and Crick’s model explain why there are equal amounts of thymine and adenine in DNA? 4. What was Rosalind Franklin’s contribution to the discovery of the double helix model of DNA? 12 – 2 Chromosomes and DNA Replication
- 6. • To extract DNA for analysis, you need to know where to find it and how its organized • DNA is located in the ________________________________ • DNA is organized into _______________________________ DNA and Chromosomes Prokaryotic Cells • Prokaryotic cells have a single circular DNA molecule that contains nearly all of its genetic information • Located in the _____________________________ Eukaryotic Cells • Much more complex • 1000 times the amount of DNA as prokaryotes • DNA is located in the ________________________________ in the form of _____________________________________ • DNA is extremely long • Bacterium DNA 1.6mm Ex.) stuff 300m length of rope into a backpack Chromosome Structure Q: If eukaryotic DNA can contain a meter or more of DNA, how does it get packed in so tight into chromosomes? A: Eukaryotic chromosomes contain both DNA and protein that form a substance called _______________________________ Histones - _______________________________________________________________
- 7. • DNA + histone molecules form a bead-like structure called a __________________________________________ • Nucleosomes pack together to form thick fibers that loop and coil together to form chromosomes DNA Replication (copying) • When Watson and Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA they recognized immediately how DNA could copy itself • The strands are ________________________________________________ • If you could separate the two strands, the rules of base pairing would allow you to reconstruct the base sequence of the other strand Replication – ____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ How Replication Occurs • Replication is carried out by _____________________________ • Before DNA replicates, the double helix must unwind and unzip • There are many regulatory molecules used in replication DNA polymerase - ________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _ • Also proof reads each new DNA strand The Steps of Replication 1. 2. 3. 4.
- 9. Name __________________________________ Date____________________ Per ____ 12 – 2 Section Review 1. Explain how DNA is replicated. 2. Where and in what form is eukaryotic DNA found? 3. How are the long DNA molecules found in eukaryotes packed into short chromosomes? 4. How are histones related to nucleosomes? 5. What is the role of DNA polymerase in DNA replication? 6. How is the structure of chromosomes in eukaryotes different from the structure of chromosomes in prokaryotes?
- 10. 12 -3 RNAand Protein Synthesis • The double helix explains how DNA can be copied but it does not explain how genes work Genes - _________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _ • DNA never leaves the nucleus, therefore the code must be copied into ____________________________________________________________________ _ The Structure of RNA • There are 3 main differences between RNA and DNA 1. 2. 3. • RNA is like __________________________________________________________ • RNA is like __________________________________________________________ Types of RNA • There are 3 main types of RNA 1. 2. 3.
- 11. Transcription • RNA molecules are produced by copying part of the DNA sequence into RNA • Transcription requires an enzyme known as _____________________________________________________ • During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA. Q: How does RNA polymerase “know” where to start and stop making a RNA copy of DNA? A: promoters - ___________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ • Similar signals in DNA cause transcription to stop
- 12. RNA Editing • Remember, a lot of DNA doesn’t code for proteins Introns - ________________________________________________________________ Exons - _________________________________________________________________ • The introns get cut out of the RNA molecules before the final mRNA is made The Genetic Code • Proteins are made by joining ____________________________ into long chains called _________________________________________ • Each polypeptide contains a combination of any or all of the __________ different amino acids • The properties of proteins are determined by the order in which different amino acids are joined together • The language of mRNA instructions is called the genetic code • RNA has 4 bases o • The code is read three letters at a time • Each 3 letter “word” is called a ______________________ • Each codon corresponds to an amino acid that can be added to the polypeptide
- 13. UCGCACGGU This sequence wouldbe read three bases at a time as: UCG-CAC-GGU The codons represent the different amino acids: UCG-CAC-GGU Serine-Histidine-Glycine
- 14. Translation • The sequence of nucleotide bases in an mRNA molecule serves as instructions for the order in which amino acids are joined to make a protein • Proteins are put together on ______________________________________ • Translation - __________________________________________________________ Steps of Translation 1. 2. 3. as each codon of the mRNA molecule moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is transferred to the growing amino acid chain by ____________________ • tRNA carries only one kind of amino acid and three unpaired bases called the _____________________________ 4. The Roles of RNA and DNA You can compare the different roles played by DNA and RNA molecules in directing protein synthesis to the two types of plans used by builders. A master plan has all the information needed to construct a building. But builders never bring the valuable master plan to the building site, where it might be damaged or lost. Instead, they prepare inexpensive, disposable copies of the master plan called blueprints. The master plan is safely stored in an office, and the blueprints are taken to the job site. Similarly, the cell uses the vital DNA “master plan” to prepare RNA “blueprints.” The DNA molecule remains in the safety of the nucleus, while RNA molecules go to the protein-building sites in the cytoplasm—the ribosomes. Genes and Proteins Q: If most genes contain nothing more than instructions for assembeling proteins, what do proteins have to do with traits? A:
- 15. Name ____________________________________ Date__________________ Per ____ 12 – 3 Section Review 1. List the three main types of RNA. 2. What happens during transcription? 3. What happens during translation? 4. Describe the three main differences between RNA and DNA. 5. Using the genetic code, identify the amino acids that have the following messenger RNA strand codes: UGGCAGUGC.
- 16. 12 – 4Mutations • Now and then cells make mistakes in copying their own DNA • These mistakes are called mutations Mutations - ______________________________________________________________ Kinds of Mutations 1. Gene Mutations Point mutations - _________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Ex.)
- 17. Frameshift mutations -_____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _ _______________________________________________________________________ _ 2. Chromosomal Mutations • Involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes Significance of Mutations • Most mutations don’t do anything • Mutations that cause drastic changes in proteins produce defective proteins that disrupt normal biological activities • Mutations are also a source of genetic variability which can be beneficial Polyploidy - _____________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _ • These plants are often larger and stronger
- 18. Name _________________________________ Date_____________________ Per ____ 12 – 4 Section Review 1. What is a gene mutation? What is a chromosomal mutation? 2. What is a point mutation? 3. What are two kinds of frameshift mutations? 4. What are four types of chromosomal mutations? 5. The effects of a mutation are not always visible. How might a biologist determine whether a mutation has occurred and, if so, what type of mutation it is?