The document describes a proposed experiment to examine the effects of Bisphenol A (BPA) and 5-Azacytidine on DNA methylation patterns in the algae Volvox carteri. The experiment involves exposing V. carteri colonies to different concentrations of BPA and 5-Azacytidine and observing any resulting phenotypic changes or mutations. If phenotypes are observed, further analysis will be done to determine if the changes were due to the toxins or natural mutations, including restriction enzyme analysis of genomic DNA and examining transcription levels of specific genes like regA using RT-PCR and bisulfite sequencing. The goal is to better understand how these toxins may impact gene regulation and differentiation through effects on DNA
This study investigated the effects of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on three species of protozoa: Volvox, Prorocentrum, and Porphyridium. The protozoa were exposed to varying concentrations of H2O2 for 24 hours. DNA was then isolated and analyzed via gel electrophoresis. Both Porphyridium and Volvox degraded their DNA at H2O2 concentrations below 4 mM, while Prorocentrum only degraded its DNA above 10 mM. This suggests the protozoa may undergo apoptosis when exposed to oxidative DNA damage, as their DNA is fragmented in a dose-dependent manner. Further experiments aim to test lower H2O2 concentrations and examine caspase
The document describes protocols for growth, pinning, and deletion assays to analyze the cytotoxic effects of three phenolic compounds - butylparaben, phenoxyphenol, and trifluoromethyl phenol - on yeast cells. In the growth assay, inhibitory concentration values were determined using optical density measurements. The pinning assay identified mutant yeast strains that were resistant or sensitive to phenol exposure. Preliminary results from the deletion assay suggest phenoxyphenol may cause DNA damage by inducing two-fold increases in deletion formation. However, results from the apoptosis assay were inconclusive. Further experiments are needed to better understand the DNA damage effects of the phenolic compounds.
Identification of Unknown Bacteria Extracted from Flagstaff, AZVictoria Ziegler
This document summarizes an experiment to identify an unknown bacteria extracted from soil in Flagstaff, Arizona. A cotton swab sample was taken from a twig and various tests were performed on the isolated bacteria, including staining, biochemical tests, and analysis of growth patterns. Through purification and isolation techniques, morphological analysis using stains, and tests of enzymatic activity and metabolic processes, the student aimed to determine the specific genus and species of the unknown bacteria. The results of the staining, catalase, oxidase, carbohydrate fermentation, oxygen requirement, and nitrate reduction tests would provide information to identify the bacteria.
This document contains a biology exam with 45 multiple choice questions covering topics like botany, zoology, genetics, biochemistry and ecology. The questions test knowledge of topics such as plant and animal classification, cell biology, DNA replication, nutrient cycling, and physiological processes.
It has long been assumed that the individual cisternal stacks that comprise the plant Golgi apparatus multiply
by some kind of fission process. However, more recently, it has been demonstrated that the Golgi apparatus
can be experimentally disassembled and the reformation process from the ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
monitored sequentially using confocal fluorescence and electron microscopy. Some other evidence suggests
that Golgi stacks may arise de novo in cells. In the present paper, we review some of the more recent
findings on plant Golgi stack biogenesis and propose a new model for their growth de novo from ER exit
sites.
1) Restriction enzymes were used to cut a plasmid from E. coli bacteria into different fragments of varying sizes.
2) The cut DNA fragments were run through an electrophoresis gel where an electric current separated them by size, and then measured against a standard.
3) Analysis of the fragment sizes cut by individual and combined restriction enzymes revealed the distance between recognition sites for the EcoR1 and Pst1 enzymes on the plasmid.
This document discusses cellular reproduction through mitosis and meiosis. It provides objectives about explaining the cell cycle, defining key terms, comparing asexual and sexual reproduction, and the roles of meiosis in sexual reproduction. The main topics covered are the cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, gamete formation, fertilization, and how meiosis and sexual reproduction generate genetic variation in offspring. Key terms defined include chromosome, gene, haploid, diploid, homologous pairs, and sister chromatids.
This study investigated the effects of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) on three species of protozoa: Volvox, Prorocentrum, and Porphyridium. The protozoa were exposed to varying concentrations of H2O2 for 24 hours. DNA was then isolated and analyzed via gel electrophoresis. Both Porphyridium and Volvox degraded their DNA at H2O2 concentrations below 4 mM, while Prorocentrum only degraded its DNA above 10 mM. This suggests the protozoa may undergo apoptosis when exposed to oxidative DNA damage, as their DNA is fragmented in a dose-dependent manner. Further experiments aim to test lower H2O2 concentrations and examine caspase
The document describes protocols for growth, pinning, and deletion assays to analyze the cytotoxic effects of three phenolic compounds - butylparaben, phenoxyphenol, and trifluoromethyl phenol - on yeast cells. In the growth assay, inhibitory concentration values were determined using optical density measurements. The pinning assay identified mutant yeast strains that were resistant or sensitive to phenol exposure. Preliminary results from the deletion assay suggest phenoxyphenol may cause DNA damage by inducing two-fold increases in deletion formation. However, results from the apoptosis assay were inconclusive. Further experiments are needed to better understand the DNA damage effects of the phenolic compounds.
Identification of Unknown Bacteria Extracted from Flagstaff, AZVictoria Ziegler
This document summarizes an experiment to identify an unknown bacteria extracted from soil in Flagstaff, Arizona. A cotton swab sample was taken from a twig and various tests were performed on the isolated bacteria, including staining, biochemical tests, and analysis of growth patterns. Through purification and isolation techniques, morphological analysis using stains, and tests of enzymatic activity and metabolic processes, the student aimed to determine the specific genus and species of the unknown bacteria. The results of the staining, catalase, oxidase, carbohydrate fermentation, oxygen requirement, and nitrate reduction tests would provide information to identify the bacteria.
This document contains a biology exam with 45 multiple choice questions covering topics like botany, zoology, genetics, biochemistry and ecology. The questions test knowledge of topics such as plant and animal classification, cell biology, DNA replication, nutrient cycling, and physiological processes.
It has long been assumed that the individual cisternal stacks that comprise the plant Golgi apparatus multiply
by some kind of fission process. However, more recently, it has been demonstrated that the Golgi apparatus
can be experimentally disassembled and the reformation process from the ER (endoplasmic reticulum)
monitored sequentially using confocal fluorescence and electron microscopy. Some other evidence suggests
that Golgi stacks may arise de novo in cells. In the present paper, we review some of the more recent
findings on plant Golgi stack biogenesis and propose a new model for their growth de novo from ER exit
sites.
1) Restriction enzymes were used to cut a plasmid from E. coli bacteria into different fragments of varying sizes.
2) The cut DNA fragments were run through an electrophoresis gel where an electric current separated them by size, and then measured against a standard.
3) Analysis of the fragment sizes cut by individual and combined restriction enzymes revealed the distance between recognition sites for the EcoR1 and Pst1 enzymes on the plasmid.
This document discusses cellular reproduction through mitosis and meiosis. It provides objectives about explaining the cell cycle, defining key terms, comparing asexual and sexual reproduction, and the roles of meiosis in sexual reproduction. The main topics covered are the cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis, gamete formation, fertilization, and how meiosis and sexual reproduction generate genetic variation in offspring. Key terms defined include chromosome, gene, haploid, diploid, homologous pairs, and sister chromatids.
The document summarizes several biology lab experiments conducted by the author:
1. They performed DNA extraction from samples, PCR, and Western blot techniques. For DNA extraction, their sample did not produce the expected results.
2. They learned aseptic technique and used Gram staining to identify bacteria samples as gram positive or negative.
3. PCR was used to amplify genomic DNA between primers over multiple cycles. Controls were included.
4. Nested PCR with more specific primers was used to further amplify portions of DNA. Exonuclease treated samples before nested PCR.
5. Gel electrophoresis separated DNA fragments by size. PCR products from two plant samples were analyzed, with one showing bands.
2009,planta, nitric oxide ros chitosan, srivastava et alNupur Srivastava
1) The study found that nitric oxide (NO) production occurs downstream of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in guard cells during chitosan-induced stomatal closure in pea plants.
2) Using fluorescent probes, the study showed that chitosan exposure led to increased ROS levels within 5 minutes, while NO levels rose after 10 minutes. Inhibiting ROS prevented the rise in both ROS and NO, but inhibiting NO only prevented the rise in NO.
3) The results suggest that chitosan signaling leads to ROS production, which then triggers NO production, and both ROS and NO are required for chitosan-induced stomatal closure.
The document discusses the classification of bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. It covers the historical methods of classification based on phenotypes as well as modern genetic methods using DNA-DNA hybridization and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The key events in the classification of the family Enterobacteriaceae from the 1800s to present are outlined, noting changing taxonomy and increasing recognition of new species through molecular techniques.
The document discusses various types of programmed cell death (PCD), including apoptosis, autophagy, paraptosis, autoschizis, oncosis, and necrosis. It provides details on the characteristics and mechanisms of apoptosis and autophagy. Apoptosis involves blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, and is mediated by caspases through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Autophagy results in autophagosomic-lysosomal degradation of cytoplasmic contents and organelles. The document also discusses some plant-specific features of apoptosis and its role in pollen self-incompatibility.
This document summarizes a study that isolated and characterized lactic acid bacteria from various environmental samples. 21 lactic acid bacteria isolates were obtained from milk, water, soil and plant samples. 10 were identified as Lactobacillus, 3 as Enterococcus, 2 as Staphylococcus, 5 as Lactococcus, and 1 as Leuconostoc based on biochemical and physiological tests. 6 of the isolates were found to harbor plasmids. Further characterization identified 3 isolates as Enterococcus faecium and 1 each as Weissella confusa, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Some isolates showed inhibitory activity
This study investigated the effects of binucleation on mouse preimplantation embryo development. Embryos were collected and either allowed to develop naturally or treated with cytochalasin B to induce binucleation. Binucleated embryos continued dividing but contained more micronuclei and chromosome segregation errors, as observed using live cell imaging. The results suggest that tetraploidy in mammalian embryos may increase chromosome segregation errors and aneuploidy, which could negatively impact embryo health.
The document discusses different types of cloning technologies including DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. DNA cloning involves transferring a DNA fragment from one organism to a self-replicating vector like a bacterial plasmid to generate multiple copies. Reproductive cloning aims to generate an animal with the same nuclear DNA as another through somatic cell nuclear transfer, while therapeutic cloning seeks to produce human embryos for stem cell research. Both cloning techniques are controversial due to safety and ethical concerns.
This document discusses the global regulation of cholesterol homeostasis. There are two sources of cellular cholesterol: de novo synthesis and uptake from LDL. Endogenous cholesterol synthesis occurs via the mevalonate pathway, where HMG CoA reductase (HMGR) catalyzes the rate-limiting step. HMGR levels and activity are tightly regulated through transcriptional and post-transcriptional feedback mechanisms mediated by sterols and sterol regulatory elements. When cellular sterol levels increase, HMGR levels and activity decrease via regulated intracellular degradation and transcription factor inhibition. This complex regulatory system maintains appropriate cholesterol levels and prevents toxicity.
The role of Programmed Cell Death in the drought response of Arabidopsis rootsMohammed Antar
Drought stress can induce programmed cell death (PCD) in plant roots, which may help plants survive drought by modifying root architecture. This study investigated the role of PCD in the drought response of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. PEG treatment was used to simulate drought stress. Results showed that PEG treatment inhibited primary root growth and induced root cell death over time. Expression analysis of ER and PCD marker genes suggested that PCD occurred in roots under PEG treatment, but not through an ER stress pathway. While a PCD inducer gene was overexpressed, it did not enhance the effects of PEG, as expected. Further study of additional PCD genes is needed to fully understand the molecular mechanisms of drought-induced PCD in plant roots.
The document provides information about different types of cells including bacterial, animal, and plant cells. It describes the main organelles found in each cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cell wall, and plasma membrane. The reader is prompted to click on different parts of sample bacterial, animal, and plant cells to learn more about each organelle's structure and function.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
Cell cell hybridization or somatic cell hybridizationSubhradeep sarkar
What is Cell-Cell Hybridization?
History
More about Somatic cell Hybridization
Mapping of genes by somatic cell Hybridization
Hybridoma technology
Other Applications of Somatic Cell Hybridization
The document discusses different methods of cloning, including artificial embryo twinning, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), and parthenogenesis. It provides details on how Dolly the sheep was the first mammal cloned using SCNT. Additional details are given on cloning techniques used in other species and applications of cloning in areas like stem cell research and agriculture.
The document discusses sources of genetic variation in populations. It describes how genetic variation arises from mutations in genes and chromosomes, as well as through the processes of sexual reproduction and recombination during meiosis. It also lists some key terms related to genetic variation, such as gene, allele, genotype and phenotype.
Presence of genetically modified organism genes in carica papaya, glycine max...valrivera
This document summarizes a study that aimed to detect the presence of genetically modified organism (GMO) genes in fruits from four plants: papaya, soybean, corn, and wheat. DNA was extracted from samples of each fruit and tested via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis to detect two common GMO markers - the 35S promoter and NOS terminator. The results were inconclusive due to DNA degradation and possible human errors during experiments. As such, the study was unable to determine if the fruits contained GMO genes.
Prevention of Lysosomal Storage Diseases and Derivation of Mutant StemCell Li...Palaelo
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis was used to avoid the transmission of four lysosomal storage disorders (TSD, GD, FD, HS) in couples at risk. 329 eggs from 56 cycles underwent PGD and analysis, resulting in 20 families avoiding transmission. Two human embryonic stem cell lines were derived from embryos diagnosed with Hunter syndrome and Gaucher disease. The cell lines expressed stem cell markers and had a normal karyotype. PGD is an effective technique for avoiding genetic transmission of lysosomal storage disorders and generating disease-specific stem cell lines.
Somatic cell hybridization involves fusing cells from two different species, such as human and mouse cells, to form hybrid cells containing chromosomes from both species. This technique allows genes to be mapped to specific chromosomes. It works by using selective growth conditions that require the hybrid cell to retain certain human chromosomes in order to survive. Over successive cell divisions, human chromosomes are eliminated at random except for those required for survival. This allows the creation of cell lines containing partial sets of human chromosomes that can be analyzed to correlate genes with specific chromosomes. The technique has been important for mapping the human genome.
This study evaluated the effects of various cytokines on senescence in Venus flytraps (Dionaea muscipula) and African violets. The researchers tested four treatment groups: a positive control with the artificial cytokinin BAP, a negative control without cytokinin, and two groups using coconut water and coconut milk. They found high rates of contamination across the Venus flytrap samples, but less in the African violet plates. While results varied between trials, the study aims to modify methods to prevent contamination and analyze telomere lengths to understand the impact of cytokines on plant senescence.
The document discusses symmetric and asymmetric somatic hybrids and cybrids in plant tissue culture. It defines symmetric hybrids as retaining chromosomes from both parents and asymmetric hybrids as retaining chromosomes from only one parent. Recent examples of cybrid production are provided, including transferring cytoplasmic male sterility from Satsuma mandarin to seedy citrus cultivars and introducing transformed tobacco chloroplasts into petunia. Cybridization allows for combining plant species that cannot reproduce sexually by fusing protoplasts such that the nucleus of one species is combined with the cytoplasm of another.
Apoptosis (Intrinsic And Extrinsic Pathway with assays)227777222an
- Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs under normal physiological conditions and involves the active participation of the cell. It is important for development and homeostasis.
- The intrinsic pathway is mitochondria-mediated and does not require receptor activation. It is triggered by intracellular signals like DNA damage or lack of growth factors. This causes changes in mitochondrial permeability and the release of pro-apoptotic factors like cytochrome c.
- Cytochrome c activates caspase-9 through the apoptosome complex, leading to caspase-3 activation and cell death. The process is regulated by Bcl-2 family proteins that control mitochondrial permeability.
This document discusses the potential for using mobile technology in healthcare. It argues that healthcare, like other industries, can benefit from new technologies that increase efficiency. For example, Bluetooth sensors could allow vital signs to be continuously monitored and shared instantly between doctors and nurses. However, there are also privacy and cost concerns to consider. While mobile access could improve data sharing, it also increases the risk of sensitive patient information being compromised. And updating equipment for new technologies requires financial investment. Overall, the document concludes that the technology may increase efficiency but a healthcare organization's top priority should be patient well-being and privacy.
This document profiles four style muses from Dallas: Suburbian Cool, Vintage Bombshell, City Chic, and Urban Roadie. Suburbian Cool pulls off an on-the-go lifestyle while looking effortlessly chic. Vintage Bombshell's style reflects her free-spirited southern personality. City Chic's fashionable outfits transition from day to night. Urban Roadie breaks fashion rules by blending classic and edgy styles to express her inner rocker.
The document summarizes several biology lab experiments conducted by the author:
1. They performed DNA extraction from samples, PCR, and Western blot techniques. For DNA extraction, their sample did not produce the expected results.
2. They learned aseptic technique and used Gram staining to identify bacteria samples as gram positive or negative.
3. PCR was used to amplify genomic DNA between primers over multiple cycles. Controls were included.
4. Nested PCR with more specific primers was used to further amplify portions of DNA. Exonuclease treated samples before nested PCR.
5. Gel electrophoresis separated DNA fragments by size. PCR products from two plant samples were analyzed, with one showing bands.
2009,planta, nitric oxide ros chitosan, srivastava et alNupur Srivastava
1) The study found that nitric oxide (NO) production occurs downstream of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in guard cells during chitosan-induced stomatal closure in pea plants.
2) Using fluorescent probes, the study showed that chitosan exposure led to increased ROS levels within 5 minutes, while NO levels rose after 10 minutes. Inhibiting ROS prevented the rise in both ROS and NO, but inhibiting NO only prevented the rise in NO.
3) The results suggest that chitosan signaling leads to ROS production, which then triggers NO production, and both ROS and NO are required for chitosan-induced stomatal closure.
The document discusses the classification of bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. It covers the historical methods of classification based on phenotypes as well as modern genetic methods using DNA-DNA hybridization and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The key events in the classification of the family Enterobacteriaceae from the 1800s to present are outlined, noting changing taxonomy and increasing recognition of new species through molecular techniques.
The document discusses various types of programmed cell death (PCD), including apoptosis, autophagy, paraptosis, autoschizis, oncosis, and necrosis. It provides details on the characteristics and mechanisms of apoptosis and autophagy. Apoptosis involves blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, and is mediated by caspases through the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Autophagy results in autophagosomic-lysosomal degradation of cytoplasmic contents and organelles. The document also discusses some plant-specific features of apoptosis and its role in pollen self-incompatibility.
This document summarizes a study that isolated and characterized lactic acid bacteria from various environmental samples. 21 lactic acid bacteria isolates were obtained from milk, water, soil and plant samples. 10 were identified as Lactobacillus, 3 as Enterococcus, 2 as Staphylococcus, 5 as Lactococcus, and 1 as Leuconostoc based on biochemical and physiological tests. 6 of the isolates were found to harbor plasmids. Further characterization identified 3 isolates as Enterococcus faecium and 1 each as Weissella confusa, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Some isolates showed inhibitory activity
This study investigated the effects of binucleation on mouse preimplantation embryo development. Embryos were collected and either allowed to develop naturally or treated with cytochalasin B to induce binucleation. Binucleated embryos continued dividing but contained more micronuclei and chromosome segregation errors, as observed using live cell imaging. The results suggest that tetraploidy in mammalian embryos may increase chromosome segregation errors and aneuploidy, which could negatively impact embryo health.
The document discusses different types of cloning technologies including DNA cloning, reproductive cloning, and therapeutic cloning. DNA cloning involves transferring a DNA fragment from one organism to a self-replicating vector like a bacterial plasmid to generate multiple copies. Reproductive cloning aims to generate an animal with the same nuclear DNA as another through somatic cell nuclear transfer, while therapeutic cloning seeks to produce human embryos for stem cell research. Both cloning techniques are controversial due to safety and ethical concerns.
This document discusses the global regulation of cholesterol homeostasis. There are two sources of cellular cholesterol: de novo synthesis and uptake from LDL. Endogenous cholesterol synthesis occurs via the mevalonate pathway, where HMG CoA reductase (HMGR) catalyzes the rate-limiting step. HMGR levels and activity are tightly regulated through transcriptional and post-transcriptional feedback mechanisms mediated by sterols and sterol regulatory elements. When cellular sterol levels increase, HMGR levels and activity decrease via regulated intracellular degradation and transcription factor inhibition. This complex regulatory system maintains appropriate cholesterol levels and prevents toxicity.
The role of Programmed Cell Death in the drought response of Arabidopsis rootsMohammed Antar
Drought stress can induce programmed cell death (PCD) in plant roots, which may help plants survive drought by modifying root architecture. This study investigated the role of PCD in the drought response of Arabidopsis thaliana roots. PEG treatment was used to simulate drought stress. Results showed that PEG treatment inhibited primary root growth and induced root cell death over time. Expression analysis of ER and PCD marker genes suggested that PCD occurred in roots under PEG treatment, but not through an ER stress pathway. While a PCD inducer gene was overexpressed, it did not enhance the effects of PEG, as expected. Further study of additional PCD genes is needed to fully understand the molecular mechanisms of drought-induced PCD in plant roots.
The document provides information about different types of cells including bacterial, animal, and plant cells. It describes the main organelles found in each cell such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, cell wall, and plasma membrane. The reader is prompted to click on different parts of sample bacterial, animal, and plant cells to learn more about each organelle's structure and function.
The IOSR Journal of Pharmacy (IOSRPHR) is an open access online & offline peer reviewed international journal, which publishes innovative research papers, reviews, mini-reviews, short communications and notes dealing with Pharmaceutical Sciences( Pharmaceutical Technology, Pharmaceutics, Biopharmaceutics, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry, Computational Chemistry and Molecular Drug Design, Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Pharmaceutical Analysis, Pharmacy Practice, Clinical and Hospital Pharmacy, Cell Biology, Genomics and Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Bioinformatics and Biotechnology of Pharmaceutical Interest........more details on Aim & Scope).
All manuscripts are subject to rapid peer review. Those of high quality (not previously published and not under consideration for publication in another journal) will be published without delay.
Cell cell hybridization or somatic cell hybridizationSubhradeep sarkar
What is Cell-Cell Hybridization?
History
More about Somatic cell Hybridization
Mapping of genes by somatic cell Hybridization
Hybridoma technology
Other Applications of Somatic Cell Hybridization
The document discusses different methods of cloning, including artificial embryo twinning, somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), and parthenogenesis. It provides details on how Dolly the sheep was the first mammal cloned using SCNT. Additional details are given on cloning techniques used in other species and applications of cloning in areas like stem cell research and agriculture.
The document discusses sources of genetic variation in populations. It describes how genetic variation arises from mutations in genes and chromosomes, as well as through the processes of sexual reproduction and recombination during meiosis. It also lists some key terms related to genetic variation, such as gene, allele, genotype and phenotype.
Presence of genetically modified organism genes in carica papaya, glycine max...valrivera
This document summarizes a study that aimed to detect the presence of genetically modified organism (GMO) genes in fruits from four plants: papaya, soybean, corn, and wheat. DNA was extracted from samples of each fruit and tested via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and gel electrophoresis to detect two common GMO markers - the 35S promoter and NOS terminator. The results were inconclusive due to DNA degradation and possible human errors during experiments. As such, the study was unable to determine if the fruits contained GMO genes.
Prevention of Lysosomal Storage Diseases and Derivation of Mutant StemCell Li...Palaelo
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis was used to avoid the transmission of four lysosomal storage disorders (TSD, GD, FD, HS) in couples at risk. 329 eggs from 56 cycles underwent PGD and analysis, resulting in 20 families avoiding transmission. Two human embryonic stem cell lines were derived from embryos diagnosed with Hunter syndrome and Gaucher disease. The cell lines expressed stem cell markers and had a normal karyotype. PGD is an effective technique for avoiding genetic transmission of lysosomal storage disorders and generating disease-specific stem cell lines.
Somatic cell hybridization involves fusing cells from two different species, such as human and mouse cells, to form hybrid cells containing chromosomes from both species. This technique allows genes to be mapped to specific chromosomes. It works by using selective growth conditions that require the hybrid cell to retain certain human chromosomes in order to survive. Over successive cell divisions, human chromosomes are eliminated at random except for those required for survival. This allows the creation of cell lines containing partial sets of human chromosomes that can be analyzed to correlate genes with specific chromosomes. The technique has been important for mapping the human genome.
This study evaluated the effects of various cytokines on senescence in Venus flytraps (Dionaea muscipula) and African violets. The researchers tested four treatment groups: a positive control with the artificial cytokinin BAP, a negative control without cytokinin, and two groups using coconut water and coconut milk. They found high rates of contamination across the Venus flytrap samples, but less in the African violet plates. While results varied between trials, the study aims to modify methods to prevent contamination and analyze telomere lengths to understand the impact of cytokines on plant senescence.
The document discusses symmetric and asymmetric somatic hybrids and cybrids in plant tissue culture. It defines symmetric hybrids as retaining chromosomes from both parents and asymmetric hybrids as retaining chromosomes from only one parent. Recent examples of cybrid production are provided, including transferring cytoplasmic male sterility from Satsuma mandarin to seedy citrus cultivars and introducing transformed tobacco chloroplasts into petunia. Cybridization allows for combining plant species that cannot reproduce sexually by fusing protoplasts such that the nucleus of one species is combined with the cytoplasm of another.
Apoptosis (Intrinsic And Extrinsic Pathway with assays)227777222an
- Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs under normal physiological conditions and involves the active participation of the cell. It is important for development and homeostasis.
- The intrinsic pathway is mitochondria-mediated and does not require receptor activation. It is triggered by intracellular signals like DNA damage or lack of growth factors. This causes changes in mitochondrial permeability and the release of pro-apoptotic factors like cytochrome c.
- Cytochrome c activates caspase-9 through the apoptosome complex, leading to caspase-3 activation and cell death. The process is regulated by Bcl-2 family proteins that control mitochondrial permeability.
This document discusses the potential for using mobile technology in healthcare. It argues that healthcare, like other industries, can benefit from new technologies that increase efficiency. For example, Bluetooth sensors could allow vital signs to be continuously monitored and shared instantly between doctors and nurses. However, there are also privacy and cost concerns to consider. While mobile access could improve data sharing, it also increases the risk of sensitive patient information being compromised. And updating equipment for new technologies requires financial investment. Overall, the document concludes that the technology may increase efficiency but a healthcare organization's top priority should be patient well-being and privacy.
This document profiles four style muses from Dallas: Suburbian Cool, Vintage Bombshell, City Chic, and Urban Roadie. Suburbian Cool pulls off an on-the-go lifestyle while looking effortlessly chic. Vintage Bombshell's style reflects her free-spirited southern personality. City Chic's fashionable outfits transition from day to night. Urban Roadie breaks fashion rules by blending classic and edgy styles to express her inner rocker.
While non-profit and for-profit organizations have similarities in their financial management practices, there are two key differences. First, non-profits are allowed tax exemption, depending on their type and purpose, while for-profits aim to maximize profits. Second, non-profits gauge success based on the amount of services provided relative to resources used, rather than financial metrics like profit and loss. Additionally, the document discusses similarities and differences in financial management structures, documentation requirements, and challenges with budgeting and planning given the inconsistent income streams of non-profits.
The Affordable Care Act is likely to have a positive impact on healthcare access, cost, and quality in the United States. It expands access to insurance coverage and eliminates barriers like pre-existing conditions. It also aims to improve quality by focusing on preventative care and linking payments to outcomes. However, challenges remain as increased demand could exacerbate provider shortages and raise costs. Accountable care organizations and public education on appropriate healthcare utilization will be important to fully realizing the goals of the Affordable Care Act.
Sinoquipe Scout Reservation is a 500-acre Boy Scout camp located in Fort Littleton, Pennsylvania. It offers five one-week summer camp sessions with traditional camping in tents and meals served in the dining hall. Scouts can earn over 50 merit badges and participate in various high adventure programs. Medical forms are required for all campers and leaders, and medications must be stored securely and administered by the Health Officer or unit leader.
Workflow Foundation 4.0 - Microsoft DevDays 2009Rui Romano
O documento apresenta as novidades da versão 4.0 do Microsoft Workflow Foundation (WF). Apresenta as principais funcionalidades do WF como um modelo de programação visual e declarativo e discute quando deve ser usado. Detalha as melhorias na nova versão como um novo designer baseado em WPF e uma runtime reconstruída. Apresenta também novas capacidades como comunicação mais flexível e atividades personalizadas.
Power BI for Developers @ SQLSaturday #420 (Paris)Rui Romano
Are you a developer? Want to learn what PowerBI has for you? Then come to my session where you will learn how to enhance your applications with PowerBI experiences...
Self-Service BI: Excel & Power BI - Microsoft ITPro AirLift - 20150122Rui Romano
The document discusses Power BI and its capabilities for self-service business intelligence. It provides an agenda for discussing Power BI end-to-end, including discovering, analyzing, visualizing and exploring data in Excel and Power BI. It also covers integrating Power BI with the cloud, including capabilities like data search, refresh, mobile access, and Q&A. Finally, it briefly previews upcoming "vNext" capabilities in Power BI like dashboards, mobile, APIs and hybrid scenarios.
Here are the key points about human infectious diseases:
- They are caused by pathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that enter the body and cause illness.
- Diseases can range from mild to life-threatening depending on the pathogen and individual susceptibility.
- Pathogens are transmitted via various routes like respiratory droplets, sexual contact, contaminated food/water, vector-borne transmission via insects.
- Once inside the body, pathogens multiply and cause harm by invading tissues, releasing toxins, or overwhelming the immune system.
- Common diseases include respiratory infections like influenza, gastrointestinal illnesses like diarrhea, sexually transmitted diseases, vector-borne diseases like malaria.
- Vaccines, antibiotics, antifung
The first document discusses research into how DNA breaks during re-replication. The study uses Drosophila ovarian follicle cells to isolate components of repair pathways and determine their roles. Understanding cleavage sites and repair can help regulate replication to avoid genomic damage.
The second discusses how bacteria use DNA replication to time important decisions like sporulation. The location of genes involved ensures the ratio allows sensing when replication is complete before deciding to sporulate or continue replicating.
Knowing how replication is coupled to cell cycle decisions could help medicine intervene in harmful bacteria and lessen infections. Understanding replication avoids mutations and helps cancer treatments target rapid replication.
1. The document discusses mutation and its detection. It defines mutation as heritable changes in the genome excluding those from other organisms.
2. It describes different types of mutations such as spontaneous versus induced, forward versus reverse, nuclear versus cytoplasmic, and more.
3. Methods of detecting mutations in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are described. For prokaryotes, techniques like replica plating and the Ames test are used. For eukaryotes, each individual must be examined for mutant phenotypes.
The document provides information about biology homework help and solutions for entire courses, exams, and homework available at finishedexams.com. It discusses reinforcement of concepts for distinguishing bacteria, including developing a key based on differential staining, culturing, morphology and biochemical tests to identify oral/respiratory, urogenital, or gastrointestinal bacteria. The document also includes questions about the brain and behavior's influence on sexuality, heredity and aggression's relationship involving hormones, and the goal of producing a new human being from gamete formation through birth.
The document provides information about biology homework help and solutions for entire courses, exams, and homework available at finishedexams.com. It discusses reinforcement of concepts for distinguishing bacteria, including developing a key based on differential staining, culturing, morphology and biochemical tests to identify oral/respiratory, urogenital, or gastrointestinal bacteria. The document also includes questions about the brain and behavior's influence on sexuality, heredity and aggression's relationship involving hormones, and the goal of considering human development from formation of gametes to birth.
The document provides information about biology homework help and solutions for entire courses, exams, and homework available at finishedexams.com. It discusses reinforcement of concepts for distinguishing bacteria, including developing a key based on differential staining, culturing, morphology and biochemical tests to identify oral/respiratory, urogenital, or gastrointestinal bacteria. The document also includes questions about the brain and behavior's influence on sexuality, heredity and aggression's relationship involving hormones, and the goal of considering human development from formation of gametes to birth.
This biology lab report investigates genetic variation in a population of students in a Foundations of Biology class. The report analyzes variation at two loci - the TAS2R38 gene, which determines the ability to taste bitterness, and the LCT gene, which encodes the lactase enzyme. DNA was extracted from students and PCR/restriction enzyme digestion was used to determine genotypes. The results found that neither locus was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, supporting the hypothesis that the population violates conditions of the Hardy-Weinberg principle like random mating.
The document provides an overview of topics covered in a biology course, including scientific method, nature of life, cells, biochemistry, genetics, evolution, ecology, and human impacts. It discusses key concepts such as the structures and functions of plant and animal cells, diffusion and osmosis, DNA replication, genetic disorders, natural selection, ecosystem interactions, and the greenhouse effect. Safety protocols for laboratories are also outlined.
The document provides an overview of various topics in biology including cells, DNA, genetics, evolution, and ecology. It discusses key concepts such as the scientific method, cell structures, mitosis, biochemical reactions, DNA replication, genetic disorders, natural selection, photosynthesis, and human impact on the biosphere. Safety protocols for laboratories are also mentioned.
1. Teratogenesis is the process by which environmental factors cause birth defects during embryonic and fetal development. The period between weeks 3-8 of development carries the highest risk, as this is when organ systems are forming.
2. Important teratogens include alcohol, retinoic acid, endocrine disruptors, synthetic chemicals, heavy metals, and pathogens. Alcohol is the most devastating teratogen and can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, characterized by reduced brain and body size.
3. Retinoic acid is important for embryonic development but can cause abnormalities if exposure levels are too high, as seen in a study where women were accidentally exposed during pregnancy.
The document discusses the use of zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model organism in biomedical research. Some key points:
- Zebrafish are becoming a popular alternative to mammalian models due to their small size and low costs.
- They have been successfully used in developmental biology research employing genetic and molecular methods.
- Extensive past research has established zebrafish as a favored genetic model, providing brain anatomy and physiology similar to humans.
Transcript - Interpretation of Low-Incidence Findings in Reproductive and Dev...Joseph Holson
Transcript of Joe Holson's lecture on rare events in developmental and reproductive toxicity studies given at the 2002 Winter Meeting of the Toxicology Forum.
GRP170 is a molecular chaperone located in the endoplasmic reticulum that assists with protein folding. Caenorhabditis elegans contains two paralogs of the GRP170 gene, GRP170a and GRP170b, which are expressed at different times and induced at different rates. This study examines the role of the GRP170a gene in C. elegans.
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This document provides summaries of biology-related documents for homework help. It summarizes documents on microbiology and industry assignments, biology questions on genetics, and a lab report on enzymes in under 3 sentences each. The document is aiming to help students by providing concise overviews of biology-related homework assignments and topics to assist with coursework.
This document provides summaries of biology-related documents for homework help. It summarizes documents on microbiology identification techniques, the influence of biology on human behavior and sexuality, gamete formation and fetal development, and genetically modified organisms. For each topic, it provides a brief overview and links to click for more details on the full document. The document aims to help students with biology homework by summarizing key course materials.
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The document describes several types of organelles found within cells and their functions. It discusses the nucleus and its nuclear envelope, chromosomes, and components. It also describes mitochondria as the energy powerhouses of cells that produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Other organelles discussed include the endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, peroxisomes, ribosomes, lysosomes, the Golgi apparatus, and plastids.
1. The Effects on Differential Methylation Patterns in Volvox Carteri Following Extended Exposure to
Bisphenol A (BPA) and 5-Azacytidine
Amer Nazar
Abstract:
DNA methylation is a crucial process that can have a dominating effect on the phenotypic traits of an
organism. Methylation is the process of adding a methyl group to particular cystines within or in proximity
to the gene (11). In an organismal system, DNA is methylated with the use of enzymes. A gene that is
methylated, normally will not be expressed. Therefore these methylation patterns can control the expression
of specific genes in a system. The organism on which this experiment will be performed on is Volvox
Carteri. Volvox is a type of algae that can usually be found in a variety of fresh water systems. Volvox is an
ideal organism to perform this experiment on because it consists ofonly two different types of cells , which
are somatic cells and asexual reproductive cells (6). Somatic cells being the ones that form the body of the
organism, whereas the asexual reproductive cells’ purpose is growth and reproduction. In an organism this
small it will be easier to spot any phenotypic effects that may result. However, changes in these patterns
can also occur naturally during development, and perhaps any changes we see may not be the result of
toxins. The first toxin is Bispenol A. More commonly known as BPA, it is an organic compound used in
the manufacturing of plastics. The other is 5-Azacytidine. 5-Azacytidine is a synthetic structure,similar to
cytidine, which is a nucleoside present in both DNA and RNA. Both of these are compounds that will
potentially de-methylate the volvox DNA for our experiment. Following exposure we will oberve our
samples and look for phenotypic changes. Results from this and similar experiments could helps us greater
understand the ramifications of methylation vs.de-methylation in DNA research. In Epigenetics there is a
great potential in using research like this to help us better understand gene regulation and how personal
environmental choices could effect ourselves,surrounding organisms and our future offspring.
Research Question:
Are there differences in whole genomic methylation patterns before and after treatment with BPA and 5-
Azacytidine in Volvox carteri? If so,what are they? Are there any noticeable phenotypes? If there is a
noticeable phenotypic change and we are able to isolate that specific gene,does it still experience
differential methylation patterns after exposure to BPA?
Introduction:
DNA methylation is a process that has a profound impact on the development and genetic growth of an
organism. Occurring on the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring or the number 5 position of the
cytosine pyrimidine ring, methylation is the addition of a methyl group to the structure.Normally the
methylation of a particular gene causes it to be suppressed. These can be genes that may not contribute to
the function of that particular cell, or they can also be genes that maybe detrimental to the development of
the cell/organism. With this process being held in such a delicate balance, it becomes clear that if even one
segment of a sequence is affected, then it could have a dominating effect on the development of the
cell/organism. The model organism for understanding DNA methylation in plants was Arabidopsis
thaliana.
Volvox cateri is green alga that normally develops in a spherical shape (looking at it undermagnification
will reveal a little green sphere with dark reproductive cells visible within. The organism will be spherical
in shape and green in color. It consists of two types of cells. The first type is somatic cells and the second
type is an asexual reproductive cell. Volvox gives us an example of two main features of all multi cellular
organisms, that its cells become specialized and that they cooperate with each other. Through out history
scientists have been commenting on the simplistic way that Volvox displays these characteristics (6). Even
with this interest in Volvox, no real research was made into the reproduction and development patterns of
this organism until the 1960s when scientists discovered how to maintain a culture of Volvox and cultivate
it. A man by the name of William Darden who was at the time only a graduate student headed this research
(6).
2. The objective of our experiment is to look for phenotypicalchanges.Some characteristics of this organism
that I think will be beneficial to this experiment are that, being asexual reproducers, their development can
be adjusted with a light vs.dark cycle that lasts approximately 48 hours (6). This is will allow us the ability
to develop our cultures at a consistent schedule.“ However there is one trait that could be problematic. W e
are going to be introducing toxins to the Volvox organisms to induce demethylation and to hopefully see a
phenotype that is unusual. But even though it is a very simplistic organism, It can develop mutations of its
own accord (6). This will complicate the second stage of our experiment. Assuming that we see a
phenotype develop,we will then have to see whether the change that was observed occurred due to
introduction to a toxin, or was it a mutation that occurred because of natural development. This is where the
tedious part of the experiment would be. We would have to be very careful in our analysis that we don’t
end up assuming that any phenotypes that we see were induced by the toxins. It could be that they
happened randomly of the cell’s own accord.
One gene that plays a major part in Volvox development is regA. Not just in development however, it plays
a major role in gene regulation. A regA transcription particle is responsible for generating a nucleotide
mRNA that is seen at the beginning of somatic cell differentiation (9). If regA were the gene that becomes
demethylated as a result of our experiment, there could be a plethora of mutations that could occur.
Mutations such as deletions from the sequence could produce a phenotype that may not occur naturally.
For the purposes of our experiment, we will be using two different toxins. The first one is 5-Azacytidine.
5-Azacytidine is not a naturally occurring substance.It is a synthetic analogue of the nucleotide Cytidine.
Cytidine is a nucleotide that naturally appears in both RNA and DNA. Originally made about 40 years ago,
it is now sold in the United States under the commercial names “Mylosar” and “Vidaza” (5). The way it
works is that upon introduction to a cell it is absorbed and incorporated into the DNA of an organism where
it inhibits DNA methyltransferase, which in turn does not allow DNA methylation to occur.
The other toxin that we will use is Bisphenol A, also known as BPA. Also not a naturally occurring
substance,BPA is an organic compound that is used in the manufacturing of plastics. It also is found in a
lot of organic solvents. It became a topic of concern when studies showed that it presented hormone like
properties. In 2008, a study demonstrated that BPA was mimicking estrogen in rats. BPA has also been
linked to many dominating health concerns such as obesity and cancer. In this experiment, we hope to
produce phenotypic changes in Volvox by exposing the organism to extended doses of both of these toxins.
For our experiment, we will take colonies of Volvox, working under sterile conditions; we will expose them
to these toxins. There will be multiple trials of this experiment to ensure an accurate conclusion.After a
preset incubation period, the Volvox colonies will be examined thoroughly to see if any phenotypes did
develop. If there is no change then that would be the end of the experiment. However if we do see a
change,then we will move on and our next step would be one or both of the following procedures. We
would have to determine whether or not the new phenotype was naturally occurring or was it induced due
to the introduction of the toxins. The first step would be that we would perform a restriction enzyme
analysis of the whole genome. This will involve isolation of DNA, followed by a gel electrophoresis with
set controls. Then the next step would be to isolate a specific gene that we know has been affected by the
methylation changes due to BPA. This process will involve isolation of RNA, utilization of primers to
make cDNA, a gel electrophoresis to ensure that there is no contamination, and then an RT-PCR to
determine transcription levels.
Experimental Design:
A. Toxicity Screen for BPA and 5-Azacytidine
a. BPA Toxicity Screen1
i. Concentrations: 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 mg/l
ii. Controls:
1. Negative Control: No BPA (0 mg/l)
2. Negative Control: No Volvox carteri
iii. Exposure for one full asexual life cycle (48 hrs.)
iv. Qualitative analysis of varying green concentration
3. 1. No BPA: the darkest green that we will see
2. No Volvox carteri: no color should be seen
v. Do in triplicate.
b. 5-Azacytidine2
i. Concentration: 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 mM
ii. Controls:
1. Negative Control: No 5-Azacytidine (0.0 mM)
2. Negatinve Control: No Volvox carteri
iii. Exposure for one full asexual life cycle (48 hrs.)
iv. Qualitative analysis of varying green concentration
1. No 5-Azacytidine: the darkest green that we will see
2. No Volvox carteri: no color should be seen
v. Do in triplicate
B. Exposure of BPA and 5-azacytidine to wildtype Volvox carteri
a. Expose BPA and 5-azacytidine to wildtype Volvox carteri with the concentrations found in
the toxicity screen for varying hours in the first 9 hrs of development
i. Exposure for 0, 1, 3, 6, 9 hrs (9th hour is the start of cell differentiation)
1. This corresponds 9 AM, 12 AM, 3 PM, and 6 PM with the cycle starting at
8 AM.
ii. After the exposure is finished spin down the culture into a pellet. Remove as much as
the experimental supernate.
iii. Re-suspend the culture pellet in standard Volvox medium (SVM) and allow
development to continue.
b. Do in triplicates
c. Controls:
i. No BPA/5-Azacytidine at 0, 1, 3, 6, 9 hrs of development
ii. No Volvox carteri
C. Mutant screen of exposed Volvox carteri
a. After 48 hours of growth, isolate phenotypic mutants from each treatment under a stereoscope
and allow to grow into a culture
D. Isolation of DNA
a. Isolate and purify the DNA of each mutant and wildtype with instructions as per manufacture
b. A260/A280 should be obtained to ensure no protein contaminates
E. Global Restriction Enzyme Assay forDifferential Methylation
a. Whole genomic to determine if methylation has decreased in mutants and follow instructions
as per manufacture
b. Methyl sensitive and non-methyl sensitive restriction enzymes
i. Treatments:
1. Wildtype and Mutants
a. –HpaII, -MspI
b. +HpaII, -MspI
c. +HpaII, +MspI
d. –HpaII, +MspI
F. RT-PCR for regA (and Lag, maybe)
a. Isolate RNA from mutants and wildtype as per manufacture instructions
b. Obtain primers specific for regA (and Lag) to make cDNA
i. Primer efficiency?
c. Run an agarose gel to ensure no contamination from proteins and do a A260/A280
4. d. Run the RT-PCR to determine transcription levels against the control of a housekeeping gene,
possibly actin
i. Run on agarose gel to compare wildtype and mutant patterns
G. Bisulfiite Sequencing of regA (and Lag)
a. As per manufacture to see specific cystines that are unmethylated in mutants as compared to
wildtype in regA (and Lag).
This experiment could end up with a plethora of different outcomes.The first is that we go ahead and
conduct the experiment (multiple trials) and there is no change what so ever to the organisms. This would
be a rapid end to our experiment and would give us the conclusion that neither of these toxins had any
effect on the organism. The next possibility is that we do notice several phenotypic changes.This would be
well and good,but then the would come the task of analyzing the samples and isolating bits of DNA and
running a gel electrophoresis on them to see if in fact the mutations that we noticed were induced by the
toxins. This is necessary because,as I mentioned earlier, this organism has the ability to spontaneously
develop mutations on its own. The final result that we could have is that the organisms are killed and we
have to declare an end to the experiment. This experiment requires sterility and caution. The slightest error
by any of us,could potentially have a catastrophic effect on the Volvox carteri. I look forward to
performing these procedures with the utmost caution and succeeding with our goal to discover the effects
that these two toxins may have on differentiation and phenotypic changes in Volvox carteri.
5. Sources:
1) M Bianco, et al. "Differential Accumulation Of BPA In Some Tissues Of Offspring Of Balb-C Mice
Exposed To Different BPA Doses."Environmental Toxicology And Pharmacology 33.1 (2012): 9-
15.MEDLINE. Web. 12 Apr. 2012.
2) Kundakovic, Marija, and Frances A. Champagne. "Epigenetic Perspective On The Developmental
Effects Of Bisphenol A." Brain, Behavior, And Immunity 25.6 (2011): 1084-1093. PsycINFO. Web.12
Apr. 2012.
3) Law, Julie A., and Steven E. Jacobsen."Establishing, maintaining and modifying DNA methylation
patterns in plants and animals." NIHPA Author Manusripts.(2010): n. page. Web. 12 Apr. 2012.
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3034103/?tool=pmcentrez>.
4) Christman, Judith K. "5-Azacytidine and 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine as inhibitors of DNA methylation:
mechanistic studies and their implications for cancer therapy." Oncogene. 21.35 (2002): 5483-5495. Web.
12 Apr. 2012. <http://www.nature.com/onc/journal/v21/n35/abs/1205699a.html>.
5) Unknown, . United States of America. NIH. NCI Drug Dictionary.NCI and NIH, Web.
<http://www.cancer.gov/drugdictionary?cdrid=39153>.
6) Kirk, David L. "Germ-Soma Differentiation in Volvox."Academic Press. (2001): 213-223. Print.
7) Schuettengruber, Bernd, Daniel Chourrout, Michel Vervoort, Benjamin Leblanc, and Giacomo Cavalli.
"Genome Regulation by Polycomb and Trithorax Protiens." Leading Edge Review. cell 128. (2007): 735-
745. Print.
8) Carles, Cristel C., and Jennifer C. Fletcher. "The SAND domain protein ULTRAPETALA1 acts as a
trithorax group factor to regulate cell fate in plants." CSH Press. (2009): 2723-2728.
9) Kirk, Marilyn M. "regA, a Volvox gene that plays a central role in germ-soma differentiation, encodes a
novel regulatory protein." Company of Biologists Limited. (1999): 639-647. Print.
Sources for Experiment Procedure:
10) Li, Rui, et al. Physiological responses ofthe alga Cyclotella caspia to bisphenol A exposure. Botanica
Marina 51, 360-369 (2008)
11) Babinger, Patrick, et al. A link between DNA methylation and epigenetic silencing in transgenetic
Volvox carteri. Nucleic Acids Research 29, 1261-1271 (2001)