Basics of Farm machinery and power engineering

BASIC PRINCIPLE AND SPECIFICATIONS OF FARM
MACHINERYAND POWER ENGINEERING
Farm Machinery and Power Engineering (Agricultural Engineering)
SVCAET and RS, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Indira Gandhi Krishi
Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, C.G.
Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya
Farm Machinery and Power Engineering (Agriculture Engineering)
College of Agriculture and Research Station, Raigarh

Power sources through which tools, machines and implements are operates-
1. Human power- Human power is used to operate small tools and implements i.e., hand hoe, weeders, hand and pedal sprayers,
sickle harvesting operation, chaff slicing, hand and pedal threshing, lifting, hand watering etc. usually an average power
produced by a human is 0.1 HP or ten man is equal to 1 HP.
2. Animal power and animate power (human + animal)- A pair of bullock develops 1 HP of power. Indigenous plough, animal
drawn planters, animal drawn spryer, harrows are operated by a pair of bullocks. Approx 70 % farmers in India are belongs to
small and marginal category who depends on animal power.
Number of emerging technologies are also increased in present days as robotics, sensor based small farming helps in precision
farming.
Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

3. Mechanical or electrical power- Mechanical and electrical power is now more popular in present days. Mechanical power is
used to operate large agricultural machineries as M.B. ploughs, large harrows, rototillers, precision seed drill and planter
technologies, combine and threshers etc. electrical motor operates the cylindrical drum of thresher, maize sheller, groundnut
decorticators etc. The efficiency of mechanical or electrical power is as high as compared to other powers. The capacity of
machines operated by the power is high.
There are various types of mechanical engines used for different purposes.
2stroke and 4-stroke engines are more common in nowadays among all. These
mechanical engines utilize power from fossil fuels as diesel, petrol, oil,
biofuels and coal fuels etc. These fuels is burned inside the engine cylinder
and produce the useful power. Mechanical engines are of following types.
1. External combustion engine - Steam or boiler engines are the example of
ECE. Not popular in now condition.
2. Internal combustion engine - a) Spark ignition engine or petrol engine b)
Compression ignition engine or diesel engine
The internal combustion engines are utilizes power in 2 stroke (Suction +
compression and Power + Exhaust) or 4 stroke (Suction, compression, Power
and Exhaust)
Engine model

All parts of mechanical (tractor) engines- An engine comprises of many small
and large components. Each of them play very important role to operate engine
efficiently.
2Stroke- In two stroke the crankshaft of an engine operates the cylinder and
complete four strokes (Suction + Compression, Power + Exhaust) in two
revolution only
4Stroke- In four stroke the crankshaft of an engine operates the cylinder and
complete four strokes (Suction, Compression, Power, Exhaust) in four
revolutions.

Connecting rod &
piston ring
Tappet Push rod Piston pin (Gudgeon
pin or wrist pin)
Piston Piston and ring
gauge
Camshaft
governor
Rocker arm
Gear box
Cylinder block and cylinder Differential gears Fuel injector pump parts

Tractor types
1. Wheel Tractor (Two wheel drive and Four wheel drive)
3. Crawler tractor (Track or chain tractor)
2. Walking type tractor (power tiller or hand tractor)

Tractor working units
Fuel supply system of an engine Governor system of an engine Lubrication system of an engine
Ignition system of an engine
Cooling system of an engine
Transmission system of an engine

TRACTOR STEERING SYSTEM-The tyres are available in many
sizes with the ply ratings as 4, 6 or 8. The ply rating of tyres indicates the
comparative strength of tyres. The higher the rating, the stronger are the
tyres. The tyres size 12-38 means, that the sectional diameter of tyres is
12" and it is mounted on a rim of 38" diameter. The inflation pressure in
the rear wheels of the tractor varies between 0.8 to 1.5 kg/cm2. The
inflation pressure of the front wheel varies from 1.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2.
Useful life of the pneumatic tyres under normal operating condition may
be about 6000 working hours for drawbar work.
The different components of the system are:
Steering wheel, steering shaft, steering gear, pitman arm (drop arm), drag
link, steering arm, tie rod and king pin.
Front wheel alignment
The front wheels must be in correct alignment in order to ensure easy
steering, to give directional stability of the vehicle and to minimize tyre
wear. Front wheel alignment is obtained through accurately setting of the
following factors: Caster, Camber, Kingpin inclination, Toe-in, Toe-out
Caster- It is the angle between kingpin inclination to the vertical line on
front wheels.
Camber- It is the vertical inclination of tractor front wheels to the
vertical line.
Toe-in and Toe-out: When the distance at the rear portion of front wheel
is larger than the front it is known as toe-in. Whereas if the distance at the
front portion of wheel is larger than rear it is said to be toe-out

Tillage operation and field seed bed preparation
• Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical manipulation of various types, such as digging, stirring, and
overturning. Tillage operation may be performed by human power, animal power and mechanical power. Ploughing refers deep
penetration, pulverization, mixing of residues and drilling of soil. Tillage operations are of following types as primary and
secondary tillage. Reduced tillage
Reduced tillage leaves between 15 and 30% crop residue cover on the soil (560 to 1100 kg/ha) of small grain residue during the critical erosion
period. This may involve the use of a chisel plow, cultivators, or other implements. See the general comments below to see how they can affect the
amount of residue.
Conservation tillage
Conventional tillage, such as moldboard plowing, leaves the soil surface bare and loosens soil particles, making them susceptible to the erosive
forces of wind and water. Conservation tillage practices reduce erosion by protecting the soil surface and allowing water to infiltrate instead of
running off. Conservation tillage practices are grouped into three types: no-till, ridge- till, and mulch-till.
• No-tillage – No-till leaves the soil undisturbed from harvest to planting. Planting is done in a narrow (usually 6 inches or less) seedbed or slot
created by coulters, row cleaners, disk openers, in-row chisels, or roto-tillers. A press-wheel follows to provide firm soil-seed contact
• Strip-tillage – Narrow strips are tilled where seeds will be planted, leaving the soil in between the rows untilled.
• Mulch-tillage - Soil is covered with mulch to conserve heat and moisture. 100% soil disturbance. Mulch-till uses chisel plows, field cultivators,
disks, sweeps, or blades to till the soil before planting. The tillage does not invert the soil but leaves it rough and cloddy. Various chisel points
or sweeps attached to the shanks affect the amount of residue cover left on the soil surface. The effectiveness of mulch-till systems in reducing
erosion depends on surface roughness, amount of residue, and tillage direction
• Ridge-tillage involves planting into a seedbed prepared on ridges with sweeps, disk openers, coulters, or row cleaners. The ridges are rebuilt
during cultivation. Except for nutrient injection, the soil is left undisturbed from harvest to planting.

Primary tillage implements-
Primary tillage is the first soil tillage after the last harvest or to opens the upper layer of soil to prepare a seedbed for
growing crops, is termed as primary tillage. Primary tillage is the first soil tillage after the last harvest. It is normally
designed to reduce soil strength, cover plant materials and rearrange aggregates. The various equipment used for
primary tillage are mould-board plough, disc plough, heavy- duty disc harrow, chisel plough, rotavator etc.
Their functions are- To reduce soil strength, To rearrange aggregates, To cover plant materials and burry weeds, To
kill insects and pests.
1. Indigenous plough 2.Subsoiler 3.Mould-board plough 4.Disc plough 5.Chisel plough
6.Soil turning ploughs 7.Turn wrest plough or reversible plough
Types of tractor implements
Trailed type implement- It is one that is pulled and guided from single hitch point but its weight is not supported by the tractor.
Semi-mounted type implement-This type of implement is one which is attached to the tractor only to the lower link of the
hydraulic system. It is controlled directly by tractor steering unit but its weight is partly supported by the tractor.
Mounted type implement- A mounted implement is one which is attached to the three point linkage of hydraulic system, which
can be controlled directly by the tractor steering unit. The implement is carried fully by the tractor. It can be raised, lowered and
hold in any position.

Indigenous plough or country plough
Indigenous plough - It is most popular in local areas or villages
of India. It considered as a primary tillage tool operated by a pair
of bullocks. The implement is simple in design having no moving
parts.
• It is a multipurpose tool sometimes and can be used for
tillage, sowing, weeding and seed bed preparation.
• Mostly the tool is used for primary tillage or to open up a top
layer of soil.
• The cost of the country plough is very low as 1500/- ₹ to
2000/- ₹ only. It can be operated by a pair of bullocks.
• In nowadays various different designs have been introduced
as per requirement on the basis of soil types and the purpose.
Parts – Handle, beam, body, shoe, share, pole.

Subsoilers -
Subsoiler - This implement is used for primary tillage operation.
Depth at which it works is up to 100 cm. It opens the upper layer
of packed soil at depth of 75 cm.
➢ It can be used where top soil layer is too hard
➢ Subsoiler can be used for breaking hard pans
➢ It kills the weeds and insects
➢ Share is made up of carbon steel which is too hard to penetrate
the soil at desired depth up to 100 cm.
➢ Subsoiler required heavy draft and can be operated by 35-55
HP tractors depending upon power requirement and size.
➢ This primary tillage implement cost varies from 25000 to
45000 INR.
➢ There are single tine, double tine and multi-tines subsoilers.
Parts- Mild steel frame, shoe, share, nut-bolts and others

Chisel Plough-
➢ A primary tillage plough used for breaking hard
layer of soil just below regular ploughing depth.
➢ A chisel plough is a mounted tool of a complex
structure designed for deep soils.
➢ The width of the soil, and as a result, the
processing performance when using this
equipment, increases by 1.8 times.
➢ Loosening the soil with a chisel solution can be
done to a depth of 45 cm.
➢ Acts at a depth of 15-20 cm in the ground, in this
case, the effect of chipping occurs and the lower
layers (up to 50 cm) are partially shifted and
loosened.

Mould Board Plough -
Three bottom M. B. Plough
This implement is most important implement of primary tillage operation. It has number of mould board attached on separate
landside. It opens the upper layer of soil and pulverize them. It conserve the moisture and kills the insects. Main parts of M.B.
plough are plough share, mould board, landside, frog, frame, tail piece, jointer and coulter etc. Plough shares are made up of
chilled cast iron.
M.B. Plough has different types of mould boards and various types of shares which will used for various purposes as per
requirements. There are different types of mould boards as

Types of Mould-Board (अलग –अलग प्रकार के मोल्ड बोडड )
General purpose- Having medium curvature
lying between stubble and sod
• Slopping of surface is gradual
• Well defined furrow slice and pulverizes the
soil thoroughly
• Fairly long M.B. with gradual twist
• Surface being slightly convex
Stubble type- shorter and broader M.B. with
abrupt curvature on the top edge used in stubble
soil
• Furrow slice to be thrown off quickly
• Pulverising is much better than other type of
M.B.
• Not suitable for full of grasses land
Sod or bed breaker- it has long M.B. with gentle
curvature used in tough or sod soil of grasses. It
turns over quickly covered soil. Complete
inversion
Slat type- M.B. whose surface is made of slats.
This M.B. is often used where the soil is sticky

Types of mould-board shares- M.B. shares
has following parts as Share point, cutting
edge, wing of share, gunnel, cleavage edge
and wing edge as shown in Fig. (a). It is
made of chilled cast iron or steel. Steel
contains 0.70% -0.80% carbon and 0.50%-
0.80% manganese.
Slip share- it is one piece share with curved
cutting edge, having no any additional part.
Slip nose – it is a share in which the point of
share is provided by a small detachable
piece.
Shin share- it is a share having shin as an
additional part
Bar point share- it is a share in which point
of the share is provided by an adjustable and
replaceable bar (landside purpose).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)

Reversible Mould-Board Plough-
i. When the implement is hitched, plough bottom is
free to rotate 180 degree along the axis of the hollow
shaft
ii. The hydraulic reversible plough comes with a
precisely hardened and tempered mould board which
facilitates best in class soil inversion.
iii. This ensures the percolated nutrients and moisture
below reach the topsoil for primary consumption of
plants and exposes the sub-surface soil to sunlight
which kills harmful bacteria, fungi.
iv. It also buries crop residues deep into the soil for
speedy decomposition thus keeping a check on weed
growth.
v. The high under frame clearance also doesn’t tamper
the ridge and furrows. It does not leave any dead
furrow.
vi. Tractor power requirement to operate the implement
is 55-70 HP
vii. This is a hydraulically operated implement for
preparation of land. It is used in hard and dry trashy
stumpy land condition.
viii. Capacity of the machine is 0.5 ha/h
•It is also useful in turning green manure crop under the soil for
decaying which ultimately adds humus to the soil hence improves the
soil quality.
• Turning and mixing compost, farmyard manure and other fertilizers
into the soil can also be done through this.

Disc Plough-
• It works on the disc and tilt angles. Disc angle varies from 42-
45 degree and tilt angle varies to 15 to 25 degrees.
• This implement has number of large discs which pulverizes
the soil and break the hard pans. Discs are made up of high
carbon steel.
• Disc ploughs are of 2 types (Standard disc plough and Vertical
disc plough or wheat plough)
• Used for trashy field or land having full of trash
• The angle at which the plane of cutting edge of disc is inclined
to direction of travel is called Disc Angle
• It is the angle at which the plane of cutting edge of disc is
inclined to vertical line.
• This are of two types as standard disc plough and vertical
disc plough. The diameter of discs in standard disc plough
varies 60-95cm.

Vertical Disc Plough-
1. Also called as one-way disc plow, harrow plow and wheat land plow.
2. Similar to pull type and standard disc plow but discs are uniformly spaced along a common axle or gang bolt and clamped
together through spacer spools so the entire gang rotates as a unit (as in disc harrow).
3. It is about halfway between the standard disc plow and disc harrow in its soil working action.
4. Generally used in plain areas and where shallow plowing and mixing of stubble with soil is required. Diameter of discs varies
from 51 cm to 61 cm and spacing from 20 to 25 cm apart along the gang bolt. Width of cut per disc depends upon the angle
between gang axis and direction of travel.
5. Width of cut obtained from various sizes of vertical disc plow ranges from 2 to 6 m. weight of plow ranges from 50 to 100 kg.

Types of Disc

Secondary tillage- Secondary tillage
operations are usually performed after tillage
operation to churn the soil, kill the weed and
breaking hard pans. Lighter and finer
operations performed on the soil after primary
tillage, are termed as secondary tillage. These
operations are generally performed on surface
soil. Very little inversion and shifting of soil
takes place and consequently less power
requirement per unit area. Implements are
disc/other harrows, cultivators, sweeps, tillers
etc.
1. Cultivator
2. Rotavator
3. Harrow
4. Spike tooth harrow
5. Spring tooth harrow
6. Blade harrow
7. Guntaka
8. Power harrows Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Cultivator
It is a secondary tillage implement having
number of standard tines (7, 9, 11, 13, 17).
Operated by 35 to 55 hp tractors. Sometimes it
can also be used to open up the top layer of
soil. Major parts are shovel(share), MS frame,
tine etc. Commonly three types of cultivators
1.Rigid tine cultivator
2.Spring tine cultivator
3.Sweep tine cultivator
1.Rigid tine cultivator – It has rigid tines used
for breaking pan. It is used to making soil
crumby.
2.Spring tine cultivator – this type of
cultivator having number of springs on their
tines used for prevent obstacles so the tines
have more durability and rigidity.
3.Sweep tine cultivator- Sweep cultivators
are mostly used for kill the weeds and for
moisture conservation. The shape of tines in
this cultivator is like triangular foot of duck so,
it is also called duck foot cultivator. Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Types of shovel (Furrower) -
In cultivators and cultivator type of seed drills shovel
type furrow openers are used. It works well in trashy
soils where the seed beds are not smoothly prepared.
They are made from two flat pieces of steel welded
together to from a cutting edge. Depending upon the
type of soil and crop, shovels are chosen for use on the
cultivators.
Cultivator shovels- 1. Sweep, 2.Half sweeps,
3.Furrower 4.Weed knives, 5. Double point and single
point shovels, 6.Hoof shovel or spearhead
Among the all shapes, double point shovel and single
point shovel has mostly used.
Double point shovel can be used by both the sides and
have advantage over single point shovel that it can be
used other side if one side being braked or wretched.
Furrower type of shovel is sturdy among the all types.
Furrow opener- There are different type of furrow
openers, which are: a) Shovel type, b) Shoe type and c)
Disc type (single disc, double disc). Shovel type furrow
opener are the widely used in seed drills. There are three of
shovels in use. Shovel type openers are best suited for
stony or root infested fields. Among the all inverted-T
openers are mostly used on zero till drills and conventional
drills.
Shoe and Shovel type
Inverted-T type furrow opener Disc type opener

Rotavator -
Roto tiller is a tractor-drawn secondary tillage
implement which is mainly used for seed bed
preparation within one or two passes and is suitable in
removing and mixing residual of maize, wheat,
sugarcane etc., thereby, helps to improve soil health and
save fuel, cost, time, and energy.
It is very useful and effective for puddling (low land
paddy field preparation with water).
These can be divided into three categories: light,
standard and heavy duty depending upon the weight
and design of the materials used as per the requirement
of different soil conditions across India.
The blades are of three types i.e., L-shape, J-shape and
C-shape and is made of carbon steel.
Cage-wheel

1. Single Action Disc Harrow- It is a harrow with two gang placed end to end with an angle larger than 90𝑜. Due to opposite
directions of discs on both gang right gang throws the soil towards right and left gang throws the soil towards left direction.
2. Double Action Disc Harrow- Double action disk harrow is often called the tandem harrow because a set of two gangs
follows behind the front gangs and is arranged in such a way that the discs on the front gangs throw the soil in one direction
and the discs on the rear gang throws the soil in the opposite direction.
3. Offset disc harrows- Offset disk harrow has one right-hand gang (throwing the soil to the right) and one left-hand gang
(throwing the soil to the left), operating in tandem. The harrow is given this name because the harrow can be operated in
offset position in relation to the tractor. A change in hitch can cause the harrow to run either to the left or right of the tractor.
This harrow is popular for orchard and limbs.
Disc Harrow - A disc harrow is a harrow with a row of concave metal discs along its cutting edge. Which can be set at an
oblique angle. It is an agricultural implement used to till the soil where crops are to be planted. It is also used to cut unwanted
weeds or crop residues. Disc harrows are of three types as;
a) Single action, b) Double action, and c) Offset type.
1 2 3

Spike tooth harrow
✓ It has number of pegs or spikes along with parallel
shafts. It is either semi-mounted aur mounted. It is
used to land finishing or top finishing of soil.
✓ It breaks small soil clods and level the soil layer with
killing the small weeds.
✓ The implement can be operated by 35-45 HP tractors
depending upon the size and capacity of harrow.
✓ The high-carbon steel spikes are set to run corner-
forward as a diamond, and are bolted into 'bars' of
round pipe or square tubes. Five to nine bars in
sequence pull about 10 teeth per running foot
through the soil.
It is a harrow with peg shaped teeth of diamond cross section to a rectangular frame. It is used to break the clod, stir
the soil, uproot the weeds, level the ground, break the soil and cover the seeds. Its principle is to smoothen and level
the soil directly after ploughing. Spike tooth harrows may be of rigid type and flexible type. The animal drawn spike
tooth harrow is usually of rigid type. These may or may not have provisions for changing the angle of spikes in
operating conditions. It has got the advantage of being turned up for transporting purpose. This harrow mainly
consists of teeth, tooth bar frame, clamps, guard, braces, levers and hooks. The teeth are made up of hardened steel
with square/triangular/circular in section. The teeth are so placed on tooth bar that no tooth is directly behind the
other. Teeth are fastened rigidly to the tooth bar. Clamps are rigidly fixed so as not to be loose while in operation

Spring tooth harrow
Spring tooth harrow is used for top finishing
and levelling the tilled lands. It has number of tines
with spring attachments. When an obstacle is detected
between the rows, the springs return the teeth so that it
avoids damage to the tines.
•It is a harrow with tough flexible teeth, suitable to
work in hard and stony soils.
•Spring tooth harrow is fitted with springs having
loops of elliptical
•It gives a spring action in working condition. It is
used in the soil when obstruction like stone, roots and
weeds are hidden below the ground surface.
•This type pulverizes the soil and helps in killing
weeds.
•This type of harrow mainly consists of teeth, tooth
bar, clamps, frame, lever and links.
•Usually the teeth are made of spring steel.
•Sometimes reversible points are provided so that one
end may be used after the other end is worn out.
•The teeth are fastened to the tooth bar by means of
tooth clamps.
•They are provided to give rigidity and support to the harrow.
•The levers are provided for setting the teeth for varying the depth
of harrowing.
•For light harrowing, the adjustment is done in slanting position.
•Draft hooks on each corner of every section for hitching purpose.

A and B Steel zigzag harrows Chisel-tine harrow
Triangular wooden harrow with
steel tines
Chain harrow
Wooden rectangular peg-tooth
harrow with rigid construction
Other harrows

Knife harrows and blade harrows
Blade harrow- It is a tool, consisting of one or more blades
attached to a beam or frame, used for shallow working of
soil with minimum overturning of the soil. It works like a
broom which goes over the top surface of the soil without
turning over and cleans and level it. They are made of wood
or iron.
Knife harrow- It is also called Acme harrow. The front of the
knife breaks the soil and crushes the clods. This harrow
achieves a fine pulverization. It consists of several parallel
knives.
Operator seat
Knives

Power harrows
It has number of longitudinal knives. Knives
have to do to-and-fro motion with the help of
tractor P.T.O.
It consists of a number of longitudinal knives
which with the help of the tractor PTO move
the knives back and forth and left and right to
loosen the soil.
It works on reciprocating motion.
Power harrow is an advanced and
latest farm machine, used to break the soil to
create a perfect seedbed. Tractor power
harrow provides high performance in the
tillage operation.
The farm machine has all the advanced features and technology that make it
ideal for secondary tillage after ploughing or subsoiling. It is a most
recommended agriculture farm machine, enabling an extremely high crop
yield. Besides, agriculture power harrows also maintain the soil's natural
composition, biodiversity, and structure.
Benefits of Power Harrows
•Power harrow agriculture provides high performance and greater work
efficiency.
•It is a cost-effective farm machine that saves money.

Seed drill, Planter and Transplanters

Dibbler equipment -
• A dibber is a long, stick-like tool used to make holes for
seeds and seedlings to make sure they're sufficiently buried in
the soil without damage.
• The width of a dibber will vary and thinner dibbers are best
suited to sowing seeds and cuttings, while planting small
bulbs requires a thicker tool
• It is a precision planter
• Plant to plant and row to row distance can be adjusted
manually
• The cost of the tool is 1500/- to 3000/- only
• The common materials are wooden, stainless steel, iron used.
• Dibbler is very simpler, easy to operated by any of the farmer
• No skilful person needed.
• Various shapes, types and materials of the tool is available
easily in market.
Seedling port
Press handle
Drilling and
covering

Seed Cum Fertilizer Drill-
1. Seed cum fertilizer drill can be used for drilling the seeds as
well as fertilizer in seed bed.
2. It is used for sowing wheat, paddy and other small seeds in
which row to row distance are maintained but plant to plant
distance would not be uniform.
3. It uses less time and less labour. The seed drill is generally
used with the aid of tractors for sowing.
4. It can be operated by 35-55 HP tractors, nowadays large size
seed drills have also been developed which covers acre of
farms in 4 to 5 passes only.
5. The main function of seed drills are;
• To carry the seeds and fertilizer in separate
compartments.
• To open furrows at uniform depths
• To meter the seeds and fertilizers
• To deposit the seed and fertilizer in the furrows in an
acceptable pattern
• To cover the seed and fertilizer and compact the soil
around the seed
6. Following components and materials are used to construct
different parts of the machines as Seed boot- iron pipe, Seed
delivery pipe- PVC, plastic pipe, Frame- Mild steel, iron,
Seed and fertilizer box- Mild steel sheet, Shovel or furrow
opener- High carbon steel, carbon steel
Length (mm)
Width (mm)
Height (mm)
Seed metering mechanism
Fertilizer metering mechanism
Number of furrow opener
Furrow opener
Size of feed shaft (mm)
Size (diameter) and number of flutes
Seed box capacity (cm3)
Fertilizer box capacity (cm3)
Weight (kg)
Power source (hp/kW)
: 1940-2310
: 970-1560
: 1070-1350
: Fluted roller
: Gravity feed with agitator
: 9-13
: Reversible shovel
: 16-19
: 42.7-49.2 and 9-11
: 66241-10308
: 63310-10141
: 224-328
: 35/26.25, tractor

SCFD- The seed cum fertilizer drill consists of a seed box, fertilizer box, seed and fertilizer metering mechanisms, seed tubes,
furrow openers, seed and fertilizer rate adjusting lever and transport cum power transmitting wheel. The fluted rollers are driven
by a shaft which gets power from wheels. Fluted rollers fixed in the seed box, receive the seeds into longitudinal grooves and
drop them in the seed tube attached to the furrow openers. By shifting the rollers sideways, the length of the grooves exposed to
the seed, can be increased or decreased and hence the amount of seed sown can be varied. Seed cum fertilizer drills are used for
drilling of wheat and other cereal crops in already prepared field.
Calibration-Calibration is a trial-and-error process. The seed is collected from the simulated seeding of a fraction of an acre, weighed, and
compared to the desired seeding rate.
The procedure of testing the seed drill for correct seed rate is called calibration of seed drill. It is necessary to calibrate the seed drill before putting
it in actual use to find the desired seed rate. It is done to get the pre determined seed rate of the machine. The following steps are followed for
calibration of seed drill.
Procedure :
i. Determine the nominal width (W) of seed drill . W = M x S, Where, M = Number of furrow openers, S = Spacing between the openers, m
ii. Find the length of the strip (L) having nominal width (W) necessary to cover 1/25 ha (1 /25 x 10000 m2). L = 400/W, meter
iii. Determine the number of revolutions (N) of the ground wheel of the seed drill required to cover the length of the strip (L).
L = P x D x N = 400/W
N = 400/P x D x W revolutions per minute
iv. Jack the seed drill so that the ground wheels turn freely. Make a mark on the drive wheel and a corresponding mark at a convenient place on the
body of the drill to help in counting the revolutions of the ground wheel..
v. Fill the selected seed in the seed hopper. Place a container under each boot for collecting the seeds dropped from the hopper.
vi. Set the seed rate control adjustment for maximum position and mark this position on the control for reference.
vii. Engage the clutch and rotate the ground wheel for N = 400/P x D x N, revolutions per minute.
viii. Weigh the quantity of seed collected in the container and record the observation.
ix. Calculate the seed rate in kg/ha.
x. If the calculated seed rate is higher or lower than the desired rate of selected crop, repeat the process by adjusting the seed rate control
adjustment till the desired seed rate is obtained.

Metering mechanisms - The mechanism which picks up seeds from the seed box and delivers them in to the seed tube is
called seed metering mechanism. Seed metering mechanism may be of several types: (a) Fluted feed type (b) Internal double
run type (c) Cup feed type (d) Cell feed type (e) Brush feed type (f) Auger feed type (g) Picker wheel type and (h) Star wheel
type or inclined plate. Usually seed metering mechanism is provided at the bottom of the box.

Ridger planter
Cultivator seed drill
Cultivator seed drill - When seed and fertilizer boxes are attached on cultivator
frame is called cultivator seed drill. It has number of tines on which boots are
fabricated where seed pipes are attached.
• Frames and tines are made up of mild steel or low carbon steel
• The capacity of such machines varies from 0.3-0.5 ha/h depending upon the
size of implement.
• Tines, shovel or furrow openers, seed and fertilizer box, cultivator frame,
attachment points, seed metering mechanism etc. are the common parts of the
machine.
• Farmers themselves convert their cultivator to cultivator seed cum fertilizer
drill planters by using various attachments and welding processes.
• It is a low cost and labour intensive operation.
• This planter is used for singulated seeding of various crops on the top of
ridges.
• The ridge making and seeding is done in the single pass only.
• Water conservation can be practiced by sowing on ridges in comparison to
sowing on flats as there is no need to flood whole field, irrigate only in the
furrows.
• This machine is best for tuber crops as ginger, garlic, onion and potato etc.
• Common functions are- Open up the top soil, placing the seeds at appropriate
depth, to cover the seed and to make ridge of appropriate height on the placed
seed.

National multi-crop or intercrop planter
Inclined plate
Intercropping planting is a multiple cropping practice that involves the cultivation
of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field. The most common goal of
intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece of land by making use
of resources or ecological processes that would otherwise not be utilized by a
single crop. Tines- 9, 11, 13 more, Tyne to tine distance- 20cm Plant to plant
distance- 5, 10, 15, 20 cm, Seed metering- inclined plate type, Fertilizer metering
unit- fluted roller
Usual specification;
Length – 2200 mm, Width- 660 mm, Height- 1360mm
Seed metering- inclined/cup feed
Fertilizer metering- cup feed
This planter is suitable for sowing of bold seeds like groundnut, maize,
Kabuli gram, etc. and very small seeds (mustard, sorghum, etc.) size
seeds which otherwise cannot be satisfactorily sown by conventional
seed drills.
• The planter is also suitable for sowing of intercrops. Tractor
mounted 6‐row inclined plate planter is a multi‐crop planter for
planting of both, bold and small seeds which cannot be sown
satisfactorily by convention seed drills. The Planter consists of a
frame with tool bar, modular seed boxes; furrow openers and ground
drive wheel system.
• It has six modular design seed boxes with independent inclined plate
type seed metering mechanism. Seed plates for sowing different
seeds can be selected and easily changed. Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Happy seeder- This technology was eco-friendly with
environment, for the health of soil as well as it also saves
water. The machine also helps in sowing wheat on time as
well as the burning of rice residue decreases the soil
fertility. Burning was also harmful for human beings,
animals and environment. With the burning of rice residue
gases produced creates very harmful situations for our
environment. Therefore, happy seeder was the most
successful implement for sowing wheat in rice
residue without burning rice residue in field.
Inverted-T
furrow opener
Horse power requirement- 45-55 hp tractor
Weight of machine- 500-550 kg
Working width of machine- 2.0-2.5 m
Row to row distance- 225 mm
No. of rows- 9-12
Type of Furrow openers-Inverted ‘T’ type
Rotor drum diameter- 750 mm
Rotor rpm- 1360 rpm at 540 rpm of tractor PTO
Types of flail blades- Reversible straight gamma type
Minimum Diameter of Ground Wheel- 550 mm Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Animal/small tractor drawn automatic
potato/sugarcane/turmeric planter-
1) This planter facilitates planting of tuber crops in prepared
seed bed. One set of bund former (ridger) are attached
behind the furrow to cover the seed and to make the ridge
of appropriate heights
2) Field efficiency of the machine varies from 75-80%
3) Single row animal drawn tuber planter cum fertilizer
applicator has effective field capacity of 0.10 to 0.15 ha/h.
4) Planter consists of cup-chain metering mechanism, 1 set of
ridger for each row, drive wheel, attachment points, seed
covering ducts, seed hopper and fertilizer box are the main
parts.
5) The planter enables planting of tuber crops i.e., potato,
onion, garlic and ginger etc.
6) It makes production high as compared to manual planting
or traditional planting
7) Plant to plant distance would be 15-20 cm and row to rows
are 50-60 cm respectively.
8) There are 2-4 rows of potato planters available in the
market with a capacity of 6000-14000 potatoes per hour.
Some of them also come with fertilizer application
mechanisms. It can be operated with 35-60 HP and above
tractors.
Single row automatic feed developed potato planter cum
fertilizer applicator was developed by Dr. Yogesh Kumar
Kosariya at dept. of FMPE, IGKV, Raipur. In this type of
planter, there is a vertical, rotating picker wheel with cups that
picks up the potato and drops it in the furrow. It also has a
mechanism to check whether in each cup there is a seed potato
or not. It makes sure that the potatoes are sowed at a uniform
distance. The planter consists of shoe type furrow opener, drive
wheel, primary and secondary fertilizer box, seed box, cup-chain
metering unit with duct, fertilizer adjustment lever etc.

Semi-automatic potato planters-
➢ This machine is very simple and functional, each element is
equipped with a large alveolar plate that turning let fall the
tubers down the furrow.
➢ The Semi-automatic potato planter is driven by the driving
wheel of the element.
➢ The covering of the tubers is made by the discs with
adjustable inclination or by the ridgers with adjustable
wings.
➢ The machine has been designed for planting potatoes of
other tubers or bulbs, whole or cut.
➢ The distance between the rows is adjustable and the seeding
distance can be varied from 17 to 45 cm.
➢ The machine requires two to three person to operate the
machine.
➢ It has a horizontal, rotating feed ring with cups but it does
not have the mechanism to check whether each cup has a
seed potato or not. Due to this, it requires a worker to check
whether there is a seed potato in every cup or not. It also
comes as 2-4 rows planter but it is comparatively slower
than an automatic planter and can be operated with 25-45
HP and above tractors
Benefits of automatic and semiautomatic potato
planters-
•It saves labour and time.
•It is more efficient than humans as it ensures proper
depth and distance between the seed potatoes.

Rice Transplanter-
•Don’t depend on labour during the peak season
•Accelerate the recovery of young and medium age seedlings
•Effective & better weeding ensures uniform maturity and a
healthy crop
•Increased plant population
•Uniform spacing between plants aids in efficient wind flow
•Each plant gets equal sunlight
•Lesser chances of diseases
•Time saving and better performance than manual or
traditional sowing of paddy.
•Field capacity of transplanter varies from 0.4-0.5 ha/h.
Applications
•Used to transplant rice seedlings in paddy field
•Higher productivity and increased farm income.

Pneumatic seed drill or pneumatic planter-
a) Drops one seed at a time no missing, no doubling.
b) Saving of costly seed.
c) No damage to seed during sowing operation.
d) Precision in sowing can increase the yield from 10% to 15%.
e) Uniform depth of sowing - better stand, better growth of roots, no
waviness - better yield.
f) Labour saving - reduced cost of planting (scarce and costly labour)
g) High planting speed hence high output
h) Appropriate and uniform spacing between seed and fertilizer for the
good growth of plant & for high yield
i) Pneumatic planter consists of main frame, aspirator blower, disc
with cell type metering plate, individual hopper, furrow openers,
PTO driven shaft, ground drive wheel etc.

Simple single row vegetable planter-
A single row vegetable planter or seeder option is ideal for
fertilization, collection, spraying, pesticide and chemicals,
fertilizers, and soil removing. Additionally, a single row
vegetable planter option makes it easy for multiple rows to
choose from. More single row vegetable seeding efficiency
than double rows of planting options. A single row vegetable
planter has space for all rows, and it allows plenty of space
for the rows to organize too.
Components- seed and fertilizer box, ground wheel, chain
and sprockets for power transmission, furrow opener.
The single-row manually operated vegetable
planter is very simple to use, the various adjustments are
made with ease, and it is maintenance free, except for the
bearings which needs to be lubricated from time to time to
allow the planter's ground wheel to move freely.
Farmer can easy operate the implement by push pull
operation although the field capacity of planter is quite low
as 0.12-0.15 ha/h.
The draft requirement of such type of implements are varies
to 15 kgf – 25 kgf while we know that a man can developes
about 0.14 hp of power. Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Wheel hoe-
Used for weeding and interculture in crops. The
handle assembly has provision to adjust the height
of the handle to suit the operator. Its capacity is
0.10 ha/day and its cost is Rs.800/- and operating
cost is Rs.2000/ha.
Cone-weeder-
The push-pull operation of the Cono-weeder makes
weeding effective. Its cost is ₹1900/- and the field
capacity is 0.18 ha/day.
Self-propelled power weeder
This machine is useful for weeding and seed
preparation in row crops, horticulture and vegetable
crops. The power weeder has a speed of 2.3-2.5
km/h providing a field capacity of 0.10 to 0.13 ha/h
with an effective working width of 550 mm. The
cost of self propelled power weeder is around
40000 (single row or double row only) and the
average cost of weeding is Rs. 1000/hectare. The
equipment saves 90 per cent operating time and 30
per cent weeding cost as compared to manual
weeding by spade.
Interculture tools-
Wheel hoe Cono-weeder
Power weeders

Ridger or bund Former
It is used to collect soil and make a bund. It is needed to
hold water in the soil thereby conserving moisture and
preventing runoff. The bund former consists of mild steel
angle iron frame, hitch system and two blades (wings). The
blades are made by mounting mild steel sheet on an angle
iron frame. The blades are adjusted in converging manner
and has wider opening in the front in comparison at the rear
end. The distance between blades can be adjusted according
to size of bund required. The implement is mounted type
and operated in tilled soil.
Bicycle wheel Hoe
It consists of a wheel of a bicycle which is driven by
human power. It is easy to operate having lower field
capacity of 0.1 to 0.2 ha/h
Components- bicycle wheel, iron/wooden handle,
tines, support pipe or beam

Sprayers
Sprayer is a machine used to apply liquid chemicals on plants to control pest and diseases. It can also be used to apply herbicides
to control weeds and to spray micro-nutrients to enhance plant growth
The main functions of a sprayer are
•Breaking the chemical solution in to fine droplets of effective size & Distributing the droplets uniformly over the plants.
•Applying the chemicals with sufficient pressure for positive reaching the plants & Regulating the amount of liquid applied on
plants to avoid excessive application.
Desirable quality of a sprayer - It should produce a steady stream of spray material in desired droplet size so that the plants to be
treated may be covered uniformly.
•It should deliver the liquid at sufficient pressure so that the spray solution reaches all the foliage and spreads uniformly over the
plant body.
•It should be light in weight yet sufficiently strong, easily workable and repairable.
Components of a sprayers are as follows
1.Pump b) Chemical tank c) agitator d) Air chamber e) pressure gauge f) Pressure regulator g) valves h) Strainer i) suction line j)
delivery line k) nozzles l) Spray gun J) Spray boom k)Over-flow pipe
Components a of nozzle
Nozzle body - It is the main component which encloses all other components of a nozzle
Swirl plate - It is metal disc with two tangential holes which imparts a swirl or rotation to the liquid passing through it
Nozzle disc - It is the component which breaks the fluid in to fine droplet. It is a flat disc with an orifice at the centre. When the
spray solution reaches the disc from the swirl plate the disc builds up further pressure on the fluid and when the fluid passes out of
the orifice, it breaks in to fine droplets . The disc has a specific design to impart a hollow cone or solid cone or a flat fan type of
discharge to the outgoing fluid.
The popular nozzles are a) hollow cone b) solid cone c) fan or flat type
Strainer- It is a small circular plastic ring with nylon wire mesh to filter any dust particle coming with the chemical solution.

Tank capacity (I)
Pump cylinder inner dia. (mm)
Number of piston in pump cylinder
Pressure chamber capacity (ml)
Displacement volume (ml)
Number of delivery spout
Type of delivery spout
Cut off valve passage diameter (mm)
Lance length (mm)
Nozzle type
Spray angle
Size of filling hole (mm)
Pump discharge (ml/min)
Field capacity ( ha/h)
: 9-22.5
: 39-42
: One
: 572-660
: 87.24
: one
: Threaded
: 5
: 725
: Hollow cone
: 78 degree
: 94.9
: 610-896
: 0.12
Specification of a simple knapsack sprayer
KNAPSACK SPRAYER- It is suitable for applying chemicals for field crops
and lawns. Similar to hand atomizer this sprayer also consists of a tank of 10-12 lit
capacity for holding spray material, a vertical air pump, pressure gauge, filling
port, spray lance , nozzle and a flow control lever. The chemical tank is filled 75-80
% volume .The pump is operated to pump air in to the tank to build pressure up to
2.0 – 3.5 kg/cm2
. When the flow cut off lever is pressed, the fluid passes through
the nozzle and spraying is done. The sprayer is carried on the shoulder of the
operator. The application rate ranges from 45 to 100 lit/ha. This sprayer is suitable
for applying chemicals to several field crops. The operator carries the sprayer on
his back and hence the name knapsack sprayer. It has a flat or bean-shaped tank of
10-15 litre capacity., a hydraulic pump fitted inside the tank, a handle to operate the
pump, agitator, filter, delivery hose, and spray gun with nozzle and flow control
lever. The tank is made of either brass or PVC material. The tank is filled with
chemical solution. When the pump is operated, it draws the fluid through the
suction hole and delivers it to the spray gun, When the cut off lever is pressed
spraying is done through the nozzle as fine droplets. The pressure developed in
these sprayers depends on the pump and varies from 3 to 12 kg/cm2
. The
application rate is 500 lit/ha. The coverage is 0.5-1.0 ha/day.
Salient features of knapsack sprayers.
1. Useful to develop high pressure with less effort.
2. Light in weight and easy to carry on the back of the operator..
3. High work rate and economical.
4. Robust and simple to maintain.
5. Both left and right hand operation
6.10-15 lit. capacity
7. Easy to spray chemicals.

Solar operated sprayers
1. The main functional parts of the machine include, the backpack
tank, 12 volts battery, 12 volts battery operated water pump, a
12 volts solar panel (18 cm × 36 cm), Extension, 2 switches,
rectifier, filter and sprayer handle with lance and nozzle.
2. Backpack tank is a reservoir of spray mix with maximum
capacity of 16 litres. The top opening with a cover is for filling
and refilling of liquid. An outlet orifice constructed at the
extreme bottom of the tank for discharge of liquid.
3. Flow rate of 2 to 3 L/min by using different nozzles,
application rate of 850 l/ha to 1280 l/ha. The sprayer is capable
of spraying 850 l/ha to 1280 l/ha in 7.15 hrs. at a walking speed
of 0.70 m/s. The 10W solar panel can produces 0.833 Amp.
4. The charging time of the battery using solar panel has been
measured by continuously charging battery and it is found that
11 hours for two day of every day 8 hours.
5. The sprayer facilitates the operation in both condition as by
direct solar power and electrical power in case of rainy and
cloudy days.
6. This solar cum electrical powered sprayer has been developed
at BRSM, College of Agriculture Engineering and Technology,
Mungeli district, Chhattisgarh by four research members as Dr.
Yogesh Kumar Kosariya, Mr. Tekan, Mr. Kamlesh and Mr.
Gopesh in 2014-15.

Foot/Pedal-Operated-Sprayer
The foot or pedal sprayers, as they are commonly called, consist of a plunger
assembly, stand, suction hose, delivery hose, spray gun with a nozzle etc. One
end of the suction hose is fitted with a strainer and the other end is connected to
the pump inlet opening. Similarly, the delivery hose is fitted at one end to the
delivery opening of the pump and the other end to the spray gun. Constant
pedaling is required for continuous spray. It develops a pressure of 17-21 kg/cm2.
The chemical is taken in a separate container and the suction hose is kept in the
chemical container. When the pump is operated by the foot, it draws the fluid
through the suction hose and delivers it to the delivery hose. When the flow
control lever is pressed, the fluid is sprayed through the nozzle. Agitation of
chemical solution is done by supplying a portion of air from the blower, The
discharge rate with one nozzle is 110-135 l/h and coverage is 1.0 ha/day
Rocker-sprayer
Rocker sprayer is mainly used for spraying fruit trees in orchards, coconut and
areca nut trees, flower gardens, and cotton and tapioca fields. It consists of a
piston type pump, a platform with fork, a lever to operate the pump, pressure
chamber, suction hose with strainer, delivery hose, and a spray gun with flow
control knob and nozzle. The pump builds up a pressure up to 14-18 kg/cm2
which facilitates the use of the sprayer for tree spraying. The Pressure chamber
helps for continuous spraying. The chemical is taken in a separate container and
the suction hose is kept in the chemical container. When the pump is operated, it
draws the fluid through the suction hose and delivers it to the delivery hose
through the pressure chamber. The output of the sprayer is 70-90 lit/hr with one
nozzle. Coverage is about 1.5 ha/day. Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

POWER-SPRAYERS
It is a heavy duty and efficient sprayer. It consists of a triplex pump with stainless
steel piston with oil bath lubrication. It can Develops 250 to 350 pounds pressure
and can deliver the solution up to 15 m. It can be powered by a 3 HP engine or
electric motor .It is convenient to spray with 4 to 6 spray lances at a time using the
sprayer. There are sprayers can be operated by tractor PTO as well as by a power
tiller.
•All the sprayers which impart the mechanical energy developed by an I.C. Engine,
on the spray fluid before spraying is called as a power sprayer.
•The most commonly used type of power sprayer in India is a gaseous energy type
knapsack sprayer. In construction, it has a back pack stand on which a blower with
a S.I.
•Engine of 1.2 to 3 hp capacity, the spray fluid tank and the petrol tank are fixed
rigidly. A pleated hose is attached to the blower elbow to carry the high velocity air
and at the end of that a shear nozzle is fixed to allow the spray fluid to trickle in
from the spray fluid storage tank, with a valve control.

DUSTER= Duster is a machine used to apply chemicals in dust form. Dusters make use of air stream to carry pesticides in
finely divided form on the plants. A duster essentially consists of
1. Hopper 2. Agitator 3. Feed control 4. fan or blower 5. Delivery nozzle
Types of dusters
1. Plunger type 2. Knapsack type 3. Rotary type 4. Power operated duster
1.Plunger type - it is a simple duster with a small piston. The piston drives a current of air over the dust in the hopper. The dust
is carried away through a delivery spout. Small hand pump dusters of this type are available and are suitable only where the area
to be dusted is small like vegetable gardens
2.Knapsack type - It is a duster with the powder container carried on the back of the operator. Knapsack dusters have a hopper
through which a current of air is blown to pick up the dust. The air current is produced by a lever operated leather bellows.
Shoulder straps are used to carry in the field. These dusters are suitable for small areas.
3.Rotary duster – Hand rotary dusters are useful to apply chemicals which are in powder form. It consists of a hopper, a fan,
gear box, handle, delivery hose and a deflector plate. When the handle is rotates the fan rotates at high speed and draws air from
outside. The chemical from hopper is fed in to the air stream in the suction side of the fan. The chemical mixes with the air,
passes through the delivery line and is applied on the plants. The rate of delivery can be regulated It is used to apply powdery
chemicals to vegetables, sorghum etc. crops.
Power operated duster- Power operated duster mainly consists
of a power driven fan, a hopper and a delivery spout. The fan
creates strong air flow which causes the dust to blow off from
the hopper to a considerable distance vertically or horizontally.
Direction of dust is regulated by a movable spout suitably fitted
with the unit. This type of dusters are used for large areas

Ex. - Garuda aerospace type precision
drone system specification
▪ Battery – 16000mAh x 2
▪ Tank capacity- 8-10 liter
▪ GPS + Receiver + Transmitter leased
▪ Cost – 5-7 lakh
▪ Battery charging time- 20-25 minutes
▪ 1 operation with fully charged battery = 1
acre (10 minute approx.)
Drone precision spraying technology-Working with prime focus on
quality, this drone is widely used in agriculture industry. It is
specifically engineered and developed for spraying insecticides and
pesticides on crops for protecting them from pests and diseases. Prior to
final dispatch, this Crop Spraying Drone is stringently inspected.
Features;
1. Uniform spraying
2. Continuous and consistent working
3. Less maintenance cost
4. Consumes very low time to cover large area
5. Easy to operating by any one or less-skilled person
6. Very fine droplets
7. Lowers human drudgery

Harvesting
and
Digging Machines

Reaper
a) With the reaper harvester, rice and wheat can be harvested faster and on
time. The grain quality is therefore preserved. The machine is light and
flexible and be easily manipulated under wet and dry conditions.
b) It is of 3 types as self propelled reaper, tractor operated vertical conveyer
reaper and reaper binder
c) The reaper harvester has a field capacity of 0.3 ha/h to 0.4 ha/h. It is also
used to cut grain crops and leave straw in swath. It is an engine operated,
walk behind type harvester suitable for harvesting and windrowing cereals
and oilseed crops.
d) The reaper consists of engine, power transmission box, pneumatic wheels,
cutter bar, crop row dividers, conveyor belts with lugs, star wheels,
operating controls and a sturdy frame. The engine power is transmitted to
cutter bar and conveyor belts through belt pulleys.
e) During forward motion of the reaper, crop row dividers divide the crop,
which come in contact with cutter bar, where shearing of crop stems takes
place.
f) The cut crop is conveyed to one side of the machine by the conveyor belt
fitted with lugs and is windrowed in the field. The crop is bundled manually
and transported to threshing yard. There are no shattering losses due to
vertical conveying of the crop.
g) The weight of machine is varies to 145-150 kg. It has 4 number of crop
dividers, cutter bar having length of 1000 mm, 75 mm length of each pitch
and 3-5 hp diesel engine.

Manually operated and simple gear mechanism
based grain harvester-
a. This is a machine operated by push/pull operation
of human. The machine is being very useful for
small-scale farmers to meet an increased demand
for local grains.
b. Main components of the harvester includes
supporting frame, handle, chain and sprockets or
belt and pulleys, cutter bar (reciprocating motion),
depth adjustment wheels, multiplier gear box.
c. This machine utilize the manual power. When a
machine is pushed by a farmer the power of drive
wheel is transmitted to gear box from where it will
goes to cutter bar of the machine.
d. Lower speed of machine drive wheel is converted
to higher speed of cutter bar as
e. The optimum forward speed of the machine to
obtain maximum field capacity was 1.5-1.7 km/h.
the effective field capacity of the machine was
found to be 0.048 ha/h. the field efficiency was
70.2 %.

Combine flow diagram- There are three major types of
combine Self-propelled: These wheeled harvester machines are
excellent for farms with hard soil. They are the standard type that is used
commonly in India.
Track: These are fitted with tracks instead of wheels. They are very
efficient in areas where wheels are likely to get bogged down. Track
combines are commonly used for harvesting rice and some other crops
from wetlands.
Tractor Mounted: These harvesters are driven by tractors that are
mounted on top of them. They work best on lands where the soil is loose
and the farmed area is extensive.
1. The header is hydraulically powered to be moved to different heights and angles. After passing through the header, the crops
are pushed into the cutter by a slowly rotating wheel called the reel (or pickup reel). The reel has horizontal bats and vertical
tines to get a good grip of the crop stalks.
2. The cutter bar which runs the entire length of the header is located underneath the reel. Its mowing fingers open and close
repeatedly to cut off the crops at their base. Then the cut crops are moved towards the center of the combine by spinning
screws. The crops go up a conveyor to the processing mechanism inside the main part of the combine.
3. At the center of the combine, a threshing drum beats the cut crops to break and shake the grains away from the stalks. Then the
grains fall through sieves into a collecting tank. The chaff and stalks pass along conveyors called straw walkers towards the
back of the machine. As the grain tank gets full, a trailer pulls alongside the combine and drives along. The grain is carried up
from the tank by an elevator and shot out of an unloader on the side, into the trailer.
4. The unwanted stalks and chaff fall outside from the back of the combine. Some combines have a spreader that throws the
straw over a wide area. The straw is chopped, spread on the field, ploughed back in or used for bedding and limited-feed for
livestock. Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Combine harvester detail-
A combine harvester is a versatile farm machinery which is
used for harvesting of grain crops as harvesting grain is more
complicated process in comparison to other vegetable crops.
A combine harvester is mainly designed to harvest various
grain crops. It is very popular among grain farmers due to its
capability to harvest more than 82 types of grain crops
including rice, wheat, corn, sunflowers, barley, clover, etc.
Threshing — In the process of threshing, a combine
harvester separates the seeds from stalks.
Winnowing — In the process of threshing, a combine
harvester removes chaff from the stored grain and produces
high-quality grain.
Manually control combine harvester- As it is known by its
name, all the processes that are done to get the crop from the
field, are to be done by combine harvester machine attached to
the tractor. That’s why it’s also called a tractor pulled combine.
Such combine harvesters cannot do all the work themselves
with their power. It takes help from the tractor for doing the
following: Threshing, Cutting, Separating, Cleaning
(Winnowing)
Self-propelled or automatic combine harvester- Such
Combine Harvesters are very powerful and have all the things
related to harvesting from wheels to grain tanker. And it has a
powerful engine which does all these tasks simultaneously.

Tuber crop harvester or digger
there are four methods of tuber crop harvesting
i) Manual operated, viz. hand tools and digging aids such as spade, khurpa,
digging and picking fork etc.
ii) Animal-drawn equipment such as potato-plough, animal drawn
groundnut digger etc.
iii) Tractor operated equipment such as spinner-digger, elevator-digger,
groundnut-digger-shaker-windrower, sugar beet-harvester, carrot-harvester,
radish-harvester etc.
iv) Self-propelled machine such as potato-harvester/combine, groundnut
combine, sugar beet harvester etc.
Among the all form of digger self-propelled digger and tractor operated
digger machine has higher capacity and field efficiency. It has capability to
dig out all types of tuber crops.
To be operate this machine the field should be in proper layout with a
ridges. Seeds should be in appropriate distance
❖ Normally, a depth of working of 7.5 to 12.5 cm or about 4 cm below the
pod zone is adequate. The front end of the shaker conveyor should be
adjusted with the help of a hand lever, so that the spikes on the cross
bars do not go too deep in the soil. These should comb the top about 3
cm of the soil. Precautions should be taken not to run the teeth deeper
than necessary as it increases the load on the shaker conveyor and makes
separation of the soil from the vines more difficult.
Forward speed of the tractor/self propelled should
be kept between 2.5 to 3 kmph. Speed of the shaker
conveyor should be about 10% more than the
forward speed of the tractor to clear the harvesting
stuff quickly without accumulation. After making
necessary adjustments, the machine should be
operated in the field. For better efficiency and
output, it is necessary that the machine should be
operated along the length of the field, which should
also be the direction of the rows. The size of the
fields should be kept as big as possible.

Tea, chickpea and some other crops baby leaf harvesters
Tea plants grow only in a tropical and subtropical climate and are cultivated for the purpose of leaves. They are collected as many
times per year as tea plant vegetates, i.e. produces new shoots with leaves. Tealeaf/chickpea-leaf/green-leafy-vegetables harvesting
is the process of plucking the tea leaves from the plant. Tea plucking is done by hand, not all leaves are picked during harvesting
but only a few top young and juicy leaves with a portion of the stem on which they have grown and the so-called bud (or tip) are
picked. Harvesting is done either manually or using a machine. Manual harvesting requires more time and the number of laborers
to complete while using tea harvester reduces labor requirements and cost of harvesting without compromising on the quality of
the tea leaves. A large bag is provided with this tea plucking machine so that leaves are directly collected in the bag without any
wastage.
Tea harvester machine operation process:
From the engine, power is transferred to the blower and the cutting blade
Reciprocating movement of the blades which are placed one above the other
The blower blows these leaves into the bag
Once the bag is filled, it is replaced with new bag
Benefits:
It is cost-effective
lightweight
safe and easy to operate
Reduces labor cost and time saving
Easy maintenance
Harvested leaves are less damaged than manually picked leaves
No additional operating cost Dr. Yogesh Kumar Kosariya (Asst. Prof., Agril. Engg.)

Self propelled sugarcane harvester- Soldier-type cane harvester tops the cane, cuts the
cane from base and places in windrow for mechanical loading. It cuts one row of green cane at a
time. A topper with a gathering chain and two discs remove the top from standing crop and drop
towards right of row being harvested. Two sets of pick-up chains arranged in a V are used for
picking and feeding the cane to the base cutter. The harvested cane is conveyed through a cane
conveying system to the windrow. Both the operations of topping and base cutting are performed
simultaneously. It does not uproot the cane and its capacity is about 0.4 ha/h.
McConnel sugarcane harvesting system: In this system, the machine is mounted on a tractor of
75-90 hp. The machine cuts the top green portion of sugarcane, harvests from the base, cleans the
cane and places in a windrow. The cane is further cleaned by labour and loaded manually or
mechanically in the truck. It harvests one row at a time.
Cut-crop-harvest or combine harvest system
All harvest system described so far namely push, pile and grab system and windrow harvest
system have one operation in common. It is the cane being placed on ground for loading after
cutting. This operation is partly responsible for cane left in the field and soil and rocks delivered
to the mill. A combine harvest system eliminates this operation. The basic components of a
sugarcane combine are:
(i) Gathering mechanism
(ii) Topping mechanism
(iii) Base cuter
(iv) Feed conveyor
(v) Chopper
(vi) Elevator
(vii) Cleaning by air blast

Thresher and threshing
equipment

Threshing action- Threshing is the process of removal of grain from the plant by striking, treading or rubbing. Common methods
of threshing are threshing by manual labour, threshing by animals, and threshing by machines
•Feed the harvest crop to the threshing cylinder,
•Thresh the grain out of the ear head,
•Separate the grain from the straw,
•Clean the grain, and
•Make ‘bhusa’ suitable of animal feeding
• Threshing by manual labour- It is done either by treading the grain under the feet of men or striking the grains with stick or
striking the plant against a hard object. It is a slow and labour consuming process. It is suitable for small quantity of harvests
and output is 17-20 kg grains per hour.
• Threshing by animals- Threshing by animals is very common method used in villages. In India, the indigenous method is
bullock treading in which the crop is spread on threshing floor in a circle, and bullocks are made to walk on it in circular path.
The repeated trampling under the bullock feet results separation of grains from straw. The trampling is continued till the grains
are completely separated from straw. On an average, a pair of bullocks can thresh 140 kg grains per hour. With the
advancement, farmers started the use of dragging devices like rollers, wooden planks, disc harrow and finally Olpad thresher.
• Threshing by machines- If the farmers get busy in threshing crops manually, it will not be possible for them to spare time for
timely preparation of land for the next crop. Delayed threshing will cause not only spoilage of grains, but also increase the
broken rice percentage during milling. To meet this requirement, threshing either needs to be delayed or the farmers are bound
to use power threshers. The delayed threshing accounts huge grain losses. Hence, the use of stationery thresher (a faster method
of grain detachment) is a viable option. The machine used for the purpose of grain detachment and separation is called a
thresher and was introduced in India during 1960. With the increase of mechanization in farms, many new threshing machines
are getting popular day by day. Threshing can be achieved by three methods: rubbing action, impact and stripping.

Types of Power Threshers-
1. According to crops being threshed- 1. Single Crop 2. Multi-crop
2. According to functional components- 1. Drummy 2. Regular (Through-put) 3. Axial flow
3. According to types of threshing cylinder- 1. Syndicator 2. Hammer Mill or Beater type 3. Spike tooth type 4. Rasp bar type
Main Components of Thresher- (i) Drive pulley, (ii) Fan/blower, (iii) Feeding chute, (iv) Spikes, (v) Cylinder, (vi) Concave,
(vii) Flywheel, (viii) Frame, (ix) Towing hook, (x) Upper sieve, (xi) Lower sieve, (xii) Transport wheel, (xiii) Suspension lever,
(xiv) Can pulley, (xv) Shutter plate
Number of human operated, animal operated and mechanical threshers have been developed in India and abroad some of them
are showing below;
Threshing Unit: The threshing is accomplished by the impact of the rotating pegs mounted on the cylinder, over to the ear
heads, which force out the grain from the sheath holding it. In the threshing of wheat crop, the straw is also bruised and broken
up by the impact, thus converting it into ‘bhusa’ (straw). Threshing unit is mainly consists of a cylinder and concave. There are
different types of threshing cylinders (Fig. 3) such as:
1. Spike tooth/peg type cylinder 2. Rasp bar type cylinder 3. Angled bar type cylinder 4. Wire loop type cylinder 5. Cutter blade
or syndicator type cylinder 6. Hammer mill type cylinder

Spike tooth/peg type cylinder- Sizes of
cylinder (length × diameter) are 75 × 35,
90 × 45 and 90 × 60 cm, Crop: Multi
crop (Rice and wheat, pulses, groundnut
etc.) Straw: Fine, Power – 6 to 9 kW/t
Rasp bar type cylinder- Used for
paddy, wheat, maize, soybean etc. No
chopping of straw into bhusa, Power
requirement: 5-6 kW/t
Angled bar type cylinder- The
clearance between the cylinder and
concave unit at the entrance is from
13 to 19 mm and reduces to about 6 to
9 mm at the end. Power-5-6 kW/t
Wire loop type cylinder- Used for
paddy Full length straw, Wire dia.-
5-6 mm, Height- 5 to 6 cm Power- 5
to 6 kW/t
Cutter blade or syndicator type cylinder- Axially
Feeding, 2- 4 cutter blade, Crop chopped in 20 cm,
Suitable for wheat, Quality of straw- Very fine, Power
requirement: 6-8 kW/t
Beater or hammer mill type cylinder-Has aspirator blower, Cylinder size:
75,90,105 cm, Suitable for wheat, straw: Very fine, Power-12 to 15kW/t

Olpad thresher-
1) It is a mainly a wheat thresher.
2) It is said to have origin at a small place named Olpad in Gujarat
state.
3) It consists of 14 to 21 plain or serrated disks mounted on a
rectangular wooden or iron frame in three axils with bearings,
on which a seat and a platform are provided.
4) It is operated by pair of bullocks.
5) Output is 75 kgs of grains per hour and Rs. 3.00 to 3.50 per
quintal cost of threshing, which is almost ½ the cost of bullock
trampling.
6) The thresher is useful for threshing wheat, barley, gram etc., on
a threshing floor.
7) This thresher has three to four wheels to facilitate its movement
from one place to another place.

Tractor PTO operated paddy/wheat thresher-
It is a machine operated by a prime mover such as
electric motor, engine, tractor or power tiller, used for
threshing. It performs the following functions such as:
(i) To feed the harvest to the threshing cylinder,
(ii) To thresh the grain out of the ear head,
(iii) To separate the grain from the straw,
(iv) To clean the grain,
(v) To put the grain in a bag,
(vi) To make the chaff suitable for animal feeding.
Removal of grains from the ear heads is done by rotating
cylinders, whose threshing action depends primarily upon
impact. When a slow moving material comes in contact
with the high speed cylinder, the heads or pods are
shattered and the grains are separated from straw.
Further threshing is done when the material passes
through the restricted clearance space between the
cylinder and the concave portion of the unit.
Output is 200-500 kg grains per hour.

All crop power thresher
It is a high capacity threshing machine, with a rasp bar cylinder and open grate concave. With proper adjustment of cylinder speed
and cylinder-concave clearance, paddy, wheat, maize, jowar, bajra and other cereal grains can be threshed quickly and
economically. A 5 H.P. oil engine or electric motor or power tiller is required to drive the machine. A flat or V-belt drive can be
used. The various components of all-crop thresher are:
1. Feeding hopper
2. Threshing cylinder
3. Concave
4. Straw rack
5. Beaters
6. Blower
7. Sieve assembly
Working principle
The crop is manually fed into the
threshing cylinder. In the case of
paddy and wheat, the entire crop
is fed into the machine and only
ear heads are fed in the case of
bajra, maize and jowar. Much of
the grain is removed from the ear
heads, cobs or pods by impact,
when slow moving material
comes in contact with the high
speed rotating cylinder rasp-bars.
Further threshing occurs, by
agitation and rubbing action, as
the material passes through the
space between the cylinder and
concave bars.

Peg/loop cylindrical drum thresher –
▪ One size is about 450 mm in length when one man
operates thresher. The other size is 700 mm in length
when it is to be operated by two persons.
▪ The diameter of the cylinder used on common threshers
is about 43 cm but its width may vary from 40 to 76 cm.
▪ Threshing of paddy crop is done by holding the bundle
against the teeth of the threshing cylinder.
▪ While the cylinder is rotated at high speed, the paddy
bundles of suitable size are held against the teeth.
▪ The grains are separated by the combing as well as by
hammering action of the threshing teeth.
▪ The grains are thus separated or combed out easily. The
direction of the cylinder is marked on it.
▪ If the mark is not there, the cylinder shall be operated in
such a way that the grains are thrown away from the
operator.
▪ The pedal is operated by one man. But, larger size
machines operated by two men at a time are also
common. This type of thresher has become very popular
among small farmers.
▪ The capacity of the single man operated pedal operated
thresher is about 1.5 to 1.9 quintals per day. The cost of
threshing will be about Rs. 6/- per quintal of grain.

Electrical Maize sheller -Maize Sheller is used to separate grain
from cobs. Before shelling, the foliage is removed manually. Maize
shellers are either manually operated or power operated. A power
operated maize Sheller uses 30-36 cm diameter cylinder of 80-100
cm lengths. On the periphery of the cylinder, there are pegs that
remove the grain from cobs using axial flow movement. The
cylinder speed is maintained in between 500-600 rpm. The cob
moves toward the end of sheller from feeding side and during this
process grains are rubbed against drum and posses through the
concave. Blower is provided to remove lighter material. Concave
clearance and cylinder speed can vary and adjusted as per
recommendation. Maize shellers are of two types’ viz. spring type
and cylinder type. Spring-type sheller consists a rotating fluted
cylinder, a rotating disc and a spring pressure plate. The cobs are fed
to rotating fluted cylinder and kernels are removed from cobs as they
move in between cylinder and disc.
The cylinder-type sheller consists of a cylinder with lugs,
concave assembly and a blower unit. Spiral ribs are
provided in the cylinder for smooth movement of cobs.
Cobs are fed in between cylinder and concave and kernels
are removed by the action of lugs. Blower cleans the lighter
materials and small pieces of cobs and clean grain is
collected. The 5-10 hp electric motor or tractor can operate
the machine. It can give output of 5-15 q/h depending upon
the size of power sources and machine.

Whole crop maize thresher
A whole crop maize thresher has been developed at MPUAT
Udaipur with the objectives to do the shelling of maize cob and
simultaneously stalk is converted to chaff. A tractor operated
multi crop thresher was also modified with arrangement so of
spikes on threshing cylinder and concave made of 8 mm square
bar with 19 mm spacing. The output of grain was observed as
710 kg/h with chaff size of 16 to 63 mm. This chaff was fed to
the animals and 85% material was consumed in comparison to
the whole stalk. The significant saving in labour was found for
detachment of cobs and transportation of crop from field to
home. The threshing efficiency was 99% and cleaning efficiency
96.4%.
Maize de-husker-sheller
The department of Farm Power & Machinery, PAU Ludhiana
has developed two types of Maize de-husker cum threshers
namely spike tooth type (modified version of wheat thresher)
and axial flow type (modified version of sunflower thresher)
for threshing the maize along with the husk.
▪ It is used for de-husking and shelling of maize cobs
simultaneously.
▪ It is operated by a PTO of 26.1 kW tractors. In the spike
tooth type sheller, pegs are staggered at varying heights for
better shelling efficiency.
▪ The spikes are placed in 6 rows with 6 pikes in each row.
The sieves have 1.25 cm diameter opening to separate the
shelled maize from husk.
▪ In axial flow type threshers, pegs are provided on the
cylinder and louvers were provided on the upper periphery
of the drum to convey the crop to the outlet.
▪ Working capacity of sheller is 15-20 q/h. Weight of the
machine is about 600-700 kg.
▪ Shelling efficiency is about 100% in both the cases and
broken grains are maximum up to 2.0%.
▪ Dehusking-cum-shelling saves lot of labour in comparison
to traditional system. Performance results of the machine are
given below.

Laser guided land levelers -Effective land leveling is meant to
optimize water use efficiency, improve crop establishment, reduce
the irrigation time & effort required to manage crop. A laser
transmitter transmits a laser beam, which is intercepted by the
laser receiver mounted on the leveling bucket. The control panel
mounted on the tractor interprets the signal from the receiver and
opens or closes the hydraulic control valve, which will raise or
lower the bucket. Loose soils are picked up by the bucket and
released lower in the field.
Steps in laser land levelling-
1: Plowing the field
2: Conducting a topographic survey
3: Leveling the field
What are the different types of
laser levelers
Manual leveling lasers
Semi self‐leveling lasers
Fully self‐leveling lasers
Split‐beam lasers

Rectangular balers for collection of straw
Field balers for making rectangular bales have been popular for many years. Smaller balers are powered by a tractor PTO and the
larger balers are often equipped with auxiliary engines to drive the machine but may be pulled by a tractor.
Rectangular baler components
The basic functional components or units which make up a baler for rectangular bales are the pickup and elevating unit, feed
conveyor, feeder, compression chamber and the tying mechanism. Each of these will be discussed individually.
1. Pickup and elevating unit, 2. Feed conveyor, 3. Feeder
4. Compression chamber, 5. Tying mechanism
➢ After combine harvesting, the straw is left on the earth in swaths. The
straw should be removed as quickly as possible so that the treatment of
the soil preparation can begin thereby establishing next year’s crop.
➢ A baler is a machine used to compress straw into bales for easy transport
and storage.
➢ Balers are divided into stationary balers, movable and field balers. They
are further classified into square balers, rectangular balers and round
balers according to the bale shape produced.
➢ According to density of bale, they could be high (200-350 kg/m3),
medium (100-200 kg/m3) or low density (<100 kg/m3) balers.
➢ Based on the power used for operation, balers are classified as pull type
balers and self propelled balers. Pull type models are available with
either a PTO drive or a mounted engine.
Tractor operated baler machine

Round balers for collection of straw
Round balers are PTO operated and are pulled directly behind the tractor. It is desirable to use a tractor with a wide front axle to
permit straddling the windrow. Large wide windrows are preferred to make round bales which are uniform in diameter. When
small windrows are harvested, operators prefer to weave side to side as the bale is formed to avoid tapered bales. Based on the
form of working unit, round balers can be classified into long-belt type, short-belt type, chain type and roller type. They are also
classified into inside winding type and outside winding type by their working principle. Long-belt and chain types are inside
winding; short-belt and roller types are outside winding. According to the chamber size adjustment, balers are classified as
expandable chamber round pickup baler, ground roll baler and fixed volume round pickup baler.
Expandable Chamber Round Pickup
Baler
Ground Roll Baler Fixed volume round pickup baler Inside winding round pick-up baler

Chaff cutters
A chaff cutter is a mechanical device for cutting straw or
hay into small pieces before being mixed together with
other forage and fed to buffalos, horses and cattle. This
aids the animal's digestion and prevents animals from
rejecting any part of their food.
Hand operated chaff cutter machine
Designed and developed using technological
advancements, hand operated chaff cutter or manual chaff
cutter machine is highly précised machine and are smooth
to operate. Impeccably designed, these chaff cutters are
useful for chopping up hay and oat-straw to feed
livestock and prepare fine raw material for food
processing industries. The technical specifications of the
equipment are tabulated as follows
Electric/power operated chaff cutter machine-
The chaff cutter is working with 1 HP Single Phase Motor. Our machines are very useful for cattle farm, Horse farm and to prepare
feed for earth worms. This machine can be dismantled and loaded in a car itself. You can assemble the machine at your place
within 10 minutes. Easy to maintain and will work for a long time. By using the Fodder Cutter for the cattle fee no wastage is
produced. Fodder is cut into small pieces and fed to cattle. 100% utility gives you only 30% of fodder requirement form the
present system. We save 70% money and within 3 months the machinery cost is repaid. This system is highly economical. The
sturdy construction of the machine is meant for long life and durability. Practical demonstration is available at our company, on all
working days.

Some of the gardening tools-
1. Pruning saw
2. Hand cultivator
3. Measuring scale
4. Hand hoe
5. Garden scraper scale
6. Tree pruner
7. Garden shovel
8. Hage cutter
9. Garden sward

Approximate cost of farm implement and machinery
One of the most important items influencing the profitability of farming operations is the
1. cost of owning and operating the farm machines.
2. Accurate cost estimates play an important role in every machinery management decision, namely, when to trade, which size
to buy, how much to buy, etc.
There are two main types of machinery costs:
Fixed Costs: These costs depend on how long a machine is owned rather than how much it is used. Fixed costs include the
following:
1) Depreciation 2) Interest 3) Taxes
4) Housing 5) Insurance
Operating Costs: It is also called as the variable costs. It varies in proportion to the amount of machine used. The operating
costs consist of the following:
1) Repair and maintenance costs 2) Fuel costs
3) Oil or lubrication costs 4) Labour costs

1. Depreciation: Depreciation means a loss in the value of a machine due to time and use. Often, it is the largest of all
costs. Machine depreciate, or have a loss of value, for several reasons, such as, age of machine, wear and tear of machine
and obsolescence. There are several different methods to calculate the depreciation. The annual depreciation value can be
calculated from the following expression
Where,
D = average annual depreciation, Rs/h
P = purchase price, Rs.
S = salvage value, taken as 10% the purchase price
L = life of machine, years
H = annual use of machine, hours
Example: Suppose a new tractor is purchased for Rs. 3,00,000.00 and its life is assumed to be 15 years. Assume salvage
value as 10% of purchase price; then average annual depreciation would be

2. Interest - A large expensive item after depreciation for agricultural machinery is the interest. It is a direct expense item on
borrowed capital. Even if cash is paid for purchased machinery, money is tied up that might be available for use elsewhere in
the business. Interest rates vary considerably but usually are between 10 and 15 per cent. Annual interest is calculated on an
average investment by using the prevailing interest rate by the following formula:
Where,
I = annual interest charge, Rs./year
P = purchase price, Rs.
S = salvage value, Rs.
i = interest rate, per cent
Taxes, Insurance and Housing -
Insurance and shelter charges together are taken @ 1% of the purchase price per year.
Variable costs includes the following items:
1. Repair and maintenance costs
5- 10 % of the initial cost of the machine per year. The following factors necessitate the repairs in a machine:
Routine wear Accidental breakage or damage
Operator’s negligence, and Periodic overhauls

2) Fuel costs- Fuel cost is calculated on the basis of actual fuel consumption in the tractor
3) Oil or lubrication costs- The lubricants cost varies between 30 to 35 % of the fuel cost
4) Labour costs- Wages are calculated on the basis of actual wages of the workers
Example- An example problem will be used to illustrate the calculations. The example uses a 15 horse power diesel power
tiller with a list price of Rs 150,000. An economic life of 10 years is assumed, and the tiller is expected to be used 500 hours
per year. Assumption
• Salvage value (SV): 10%
• Interest rate : 10 %
• Insurance & taxes: 1% of PP
• Housing: 1 % of PP
• Fuel consumption: 1lit/hour
• Fuel Cost = Rs 50 per lit
• Lubrication cost: Rs150 per lit
• Lubrication consumption : 5% of fuel
• Repair and Maintenance : 5-8 %
• Labour : Rs 50 per hour
Solution: The total cost can be calculated as-

Machine Size Speed (mph) Field Efficiency (%) Effective Field Capacity (A/h)
Fertilizer Spreader
40' 6 70 20.4
50' 6 70 25.5
Manure Spreader 10' 5 63 3.8
Anhydrous Ammonia
Applicator
9 knife 5 65 8.9
Plow 7–16" 5 85 4.8
Subsoiler 5–24" 5 85 5.2
Chisel Plow 11’3" 5.5 85 6.4
Offset Disk 12' 5.5 85 6.8
Tandem Disk 14' 6 83 8.5
Field
Cultivator/Seedbed
Conditioner
15' 7 85 10.8
Planter, seed only 6–30" 5 65 5.9
Grain or Soybean Drill 10' 6 70 5.1
Broadcast Seeder 20' 5 70 8.5
Sprayer 20' 6 65 9.5
Rotary Hoe
Row-crop Cultivator 6–30" 4 80 5.8
Mower Conditioner
rotary
9' 7 83 6.3
Cutter bar 12' 5 80 5.8
Combine, soybeans* 15' 3.8 73 5
self-propelled Forage
Harvester 3 rows
25
Average Field Speeds, Field Efficiencies, and Effective Field Capacities, working hours, life of some farm machinery,
Machine Useful
life, Y
Working
hour, h
Tractor 10 10000
Rotavator 8 2400
Cultivator 10 4000
Power tiller 10 8000
Combine
(self)
6 3000
Combine
(mounted)
7 2000
Seed drill 10 2500
SCFD 8 2000
Planter 10 2000
Power
thresher
8 2500
Puddler 10 2500
Disc harrow 10 3000
Ridger 12 1500

Procedure wise repairs and maintenance of agricultural tractors
Our country is an agricultural country, out of various units of agriculture, agricultural engineering is also an important unit which
connects our fields with new techniques, tractor is one of the important machines among them, tractor is wider in agriculture than
other works. are formally used. Tractor is made up of many types of small equipment, which if not maintained in time, have a
great impact on the work, such as reduction in the efficiency of the tractor, needing more fuel, oil leakage. Hence periodic
maintenance and upkeep of the tractor is essential, some of the tips are as follows – To make your tractor efficient and cost
effective, avail the services of a skilled mechanic, get the right grade use oil and genuine spare parts.
Every day (after 8-10 hours of work)
• Check the oil level in the engine. This should be done 15 minutes after the engine has cooled down. If a shortage is found, the
level should be refilled with engine oil of the correct grade.
• Check the radiator water and refill it.
• Clean the air cleaner and check the oil level. If it is low, fill it to the required level. Fill with clean oil if the existing oil has
become dirty.
Weekly (50-60 hours after work)
• Repeat maintenance measures daily.
• Check the air pressure in the tyres. If the pressure is low, get the necessary air.
• Clean the air pressure and fill it with an oil of the correct grade. Drain the water stored in the oil filter using the hose plug.
• Check the water level of the battery. If the water is found to be below the limit, fill it with distilled water.
• Check the oil level in the gear box.
• Apply grease to clutch shaft and bearing, brake control, fan washer, front wheel hub, tie rod and radius cross, etc.
After a fortnight (120 to 125 working hours)
• Repeat the weekly schedule of maintenance.
• Oil the dynamo and starter.
• Clean the carbon in the smoke-tube.

• Change engine oil. To do this, keep the tractor on for a while and then switch it off so that the entire oil is heated, then drain the
oil through the drain plug and fill in fresh and clean oil of the correct grade.
• If the oil filter is made of paper, element, cloth, felt, etc., replace them. Clean the metal oil filter.
• Check feel play of clutch and brake, it should be 15 mm long. Adjust it as needed.
Monthly (after 250 working hours)
• Repeat each step of fortnightly maintenance.
• If cleaning of primary diesel filter is advised, (as per manual provided with tractor) clean or replace it. Wash the filter of the oil-
tank tap.
• Check for water in the battery. If its relative density is below the mark, replace the battery.
After two months (500 hours of work)
• Follow the monthly schedule of maintenance.
• Replace the other element of the diesel filter.
• Have the injectors and diesel pump checked by an authorized dealer or an experienced mechanic.
• Contact your authorized dealer or an experienced mechanic to have the valve inspected.
• Inspect dynamo and self starter.
• Open the oil tank and clean it.
After four months (100-1200 working hours)
• Follow the bi-monthly maintenance schedule.
• Drain out the gear box oil and fill it with clean oil of the correct grade.
• Drain the back-axle oil and fill with clean oil. Change the oil of the belt-pulley.
• Clean the filter of the hydraulic pump.
• Replace steering oil.
• Change the front wheel grease.

Repair and maintenance of farm machinery and implements
1. Keep all manuals or documents which contain procedure and maintenance tips.
2. Perform regular oil changes as per need and when required
3. Lubricate moving parts where applicable, use weather based lubricating oil for different
machineries
4. Check all hitches and tires should be in proper inflation or pressure
5. Inspect any lights, gauges on the vehicle and the batteries
6. Calibrate special equipment daily
7. Keep machinery clean. Store in dry chamber or a big covered hall
8. Inspect for damage. Keep aways the machinery from dust and foreign particles
9. Store equipment indoors when possible, clean the tool/implement after every operation.
10. Avoid customizing or modifying engines
References: self-lecture notes, various institutional websites, online notes and preferred books of farm machinery and power engineering
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