This document discusses several bacterial diseases of the respiratory system, including streptococcal diseases like strep throat caused by Streptococcus pyogenes. It describes the properties, classification, and diseases associated with different streptococcal species. It also covers Corynebacterium diphtheriae which causes diphtheria, as well as pneumococcal pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Other topics include mycoplasmal pneumonia from Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae infections, and whooping cough from the bacterium Bordetella pertussis.
The document provides an overview of several diseases that affect the respiratory system, including both the upper and lower tract. It discusses bacterial infections like strep throat, scarlet fever, diphtheria, pertussis, tuberculosis, and pneumococcal pneumonia. It also covers atypical pneumonia, Legionnaire's disease, and some fungal diseases. For each condition, it describes the causative pathogen, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and other relevant details.
The document discusses several respiratory conditions including pneumonia, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma. It provides details on the pathogenesis and morphology of pneumonia and tuberculosis, including the different types of pneumonia, typical causative organisms and clinical features. It also discusses the pathogenesis of tuberculosis, including how the bacteria infect macrophages and the immune response involving T helper 1 cells and granuloma formation. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma are also briefly introduced.
Pneumonia is a common lung infection that can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. It results in inflammation and fluid in the alveoli, causing symptoms like cough, chest pain, fever and difficulty breathing. The most common bacterial causes are Streptococcus pneumoniae and atypical bacteria. Pneumonia poses greater risks for elderly people, young children, and those with weakened immune systems. Diagnosis involves tests like chest x-rays and treatment differs based on the identified cause.
This document discusses several types of streptococci that are medically important, including Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and viridans streptococci. S. pyogenes causes diseases like strep throat, impetigo, and necrotizing fasciitis. S. pneumoniae is a major cause of pneumonia and meningitis. Viridans streptococci can cause endocarditis following bacteremia from dental procedures. The document covers characteristics, diseases caused, diagnostic tests, and treatments for these different streptococci.
There are nearly 100 viruses of the herpes group that infect many different animal species.
Official name of herpesviruses that commonly infect human is Humans herpesvirus (HHV)
herpes simplex virus types 1 (HHV 1)
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HHV 2)
Varicella-zoster virus (HHV 3)
Epstein-Barr virus, (HHV 4)
Cytomegalovirus (HHV 5)
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV 6)
Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV 7)
Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV 8) (Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus).
Herpes B virus of monkeys can also infect humans
hELMINTHS#corona virus#Aspergillosis#BUGANDO#CUHAS#CUHAS#CUHAS
This document provides information on various bacteria including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and others. It describes their characteristics, habitats, methods of transmission, methods of culture and identification, pathogenicity, and treatments. Key points covered include that Streptococcus is gram-positive and forms chains, Staphylococcus forms grape-like clusters, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis is acid-fast and causes tuberculosis. Culture methods and identification of each organism is outlined along with diseases they can cause.
This document summarizes key aspects of four bacterial pathogens: Mycobacterium leprae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Treponema pallidum, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It describes the organism reservoirs, modes of transmission, metabolism, virulence factors, clinical syndromes caused, treatment options, and methods of diagnosis for each pathogen. Major points covered include how M. leprae causes leprosy by invading Schwann cells, clinical classifications of leprosy; M. pneumoniae causes respiratory illnesses through secretion of the CARDS toxin; T. pallidum causes syphilis in stages and can damage multiple organ systems if untreated; and N. gonorrhoeae is
Mycoplasma are unique prokaryotes that lack a cell wall. They can cause respiratory infections like pneumonia that spread through coughing and sneezing. Symptoms include cough, fatigue, and weakness. Diagnosis involves blood tests to detect antibodies. Treatment involves antibiotics like erythromycin and doxycycline. Prevention relies on good hygiene practices.
The document provides an overview of several diseases that affect the respiratory system, including both the upper and lower tract. It discusses bacterial infections like strep throat, scarlet fever, diphtheria, pertussis, tuberculosis, and pneumococcal pneumonia. It also covers atypical pneumonia, Legionnaire's disease, and some fungal diseases. For each condition, it describes the causative pathogen, signs and symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and other relevant details.
The document discusses several respiratory conditions including pneumonia, tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma. It provides details on the pathogenesis and morphology of pneumonia and tuberculosis, including the different types of pneumonia, typical causative organisms and clinical features. It also discusses the pathogenesis of tuberculosis, including how the bacteria infect macrophages and the immune response involving T helper 1 cells and granuloma formation. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma are also briefly introduced.
Pneumonia is a common lung infection that can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. It results in inflammation and fluid in the alveoli, causing symptoms like cough, chest pain, fever and difficulty breathing. The most common bacterial causes are Streptococcus pneumoniae and atypical bacteria. Pneumonia poses greater risks for elderly people, young children, and those with weakened immune systems. Diagnosis involves tests like chest x-rays and treatment differs based on the identified cause.
This document discusses several types of streptococci that are medically important, including Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and viridans streptococci. S. pyogenes causes diseases like strep throat, impetigo, and necrotizing fasciitis. S. pneumoniae is a major cause of pneumonia and meningitis. Viridans streptococci can cause endocarditis following bacteremia from dental procedures. The document covers characteristics, diseases caused, diagnostic tests, and treatments for these different streptococci.
There are nearly 100 viruses of the herpes group that infect many different animal species.
Official name of herpesviruses that commonly infect human is Humans herpesvirus (HHV)
herpes simplex virus types 1 (HHV 1)
Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HHV 2)
Varicella-zoster virus (HHV 3)
Epstein-Barr virus, (HHV 4)
Cytomegalovirus (HHV 5)
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV 6)
Human herpesvirus 7 (HHV 7)
Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV 8) (Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus).
Herpes B virus of monkeys can also infect humans
hELMINTHS#corona virus#Aspergillosis#BUGANDO#CUHAS#CUHAS#CUHAS
This document provides information on various bacteria including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and others. It describes their characteristics, habitats, methods of transmission, methods of culture and identification, pathogenicity, and treatments. Key points covered include that Streptococcus is gram-positive and forms chains, Staphylococcus forms grape-like clusters, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis is acid-fast and causes tuberculosis. Culture methods and identification of each organism is outlined along with diseases they can cause.
This document summarizes key aspects of four bacterial pathogens: Mycobacterium leprae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Treponema pallidum, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It describes the organism reservoirs, modes of transmission, metabolism, virulence factors, clinical syndromes caused, treatment options, and methods of diagnosis for each pathogen. Major points covered include how M. leprae causes leprosy by invading Schwann cells, clinical classifications of leprosy; M. pneumoniae causes respiratory illnesses through secretion of the CARDS toxin; T. pallidum causes syphilis in stages and can damage multiple organ systems if untreated; and N. gonorrhoeae is
Mycoplasma are unique prokaryotes that lack a cell wall. They can cause respiratory infections like pneumonia that spread through coughing and sneezing. Symptoms include cough, fatigue, and weakness. Diagnosis involves blood tests to detect antibodies. Treatment involves antibiotics like erythromycin and doxycycline. Prevention relies on good hygiene practices.
This document summarizes different types and stages of tuberculosis infection and disease. It describes primary tuberculosis occurring in previously unexposed individuals, which may lead to fibrosis and healing or progressive primary disease. It also describes secondary or reactivation tuberculosis occurring in sensitized hosts, which typically involves the lung apices and may progress to cavitary lesions if not treated properly. The document discusses the pathology, microbiology, immunology and clinical manifestations of tuberculosis at different stages.
The document discusses various types of bacteria and their classification. It describes important pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Clostridium, Mycobacterium, Neisseria, Haemophilus, Salmonella, Vibrio, Rickettsia, Chlamydia, Treponema, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillus, and Actinomycetes. For each bacterium, it outlines the diseases they cause, virulence factors, and modes of transmission.
1. Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and mainly affects the lungs. It is observed that 10 million active TB cases occur globally each year, with India reporting approximately 2.3 million cases.
2. Tuberculosis is transmitted when people inhale droplets from the coughs or sneezes of people with active pulmonary or laryngeal TB. It can also occur through ingesting milk from cows with bovine tuberculosis.
3. Granulomatous inflammation is the body's protective response to chronic infections or foreign material like tuberculosis bacteria. It forms structures called granulomas that wall off the pathogen to prevent spread while also destroying tissue over time.
Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges that covers the brain and spinal cord. It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or other pathogens. Bacterial meningitis is the most common and severe form. The top causes are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, group B streptococci and Listeria monocytogenes. Symptoms include fever, headache and neck stiffness, but not all patients experience the full triad of symptoms.
Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes are common Gram-positive bacterial infections that cause issues like skin lesions, pneumonia, and rheumatic fever. They produce toxins and adhere to host cells to cause illness. Gram-negative bacteria like Neisseria meningitidis, Bordetella pertussis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa can lead to meningitis, whooping cough, and pneumonia through virulence factors and invasion of tissues. Yersinia pestis caused the bubonic plague through proliferation in lymph nodes and necrosis of tissues.
Systemic mycoses can result from inhalation of fungal spores that then differentiate into yeast or other forms in the lungs. This document focuses on four specific systemic mycoses: Coccidioides, Histoplasma, Blastomyces, and Paracoccidioides. Coccidioides causes valley fever through inhalation of spores in dry soil in the southwestern US and Central/South America. Paracoccidioides causes a similar disease through inhalation in parts of Central/South America. Both fungi exist as molds in soil and yeasts in tissues. Symptoms range from asymptomatic to disseminated disease. Diagnosis involves microscopy, culture, and ser
The document discusses pneumonia, specifically lobar pneumonia. It describes the pathogenesis, morphological features, and stages of lobar pneumonia including congestion, red hepatization, grey hepatization, and resolution. Complications of untreated lobar pneumonia are also discussed, such as organization of exudate leading to fibrosis, pleural effusions, empyema, lung abscesses, and metastatic infection.
Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs that is commonly caused by bacteria or viruses. It presents with symptoms like cough, fever, and chest pain. Pneumonia can be classified based on location in the lungs (lobar vs. bronchopneumonia) or cause (typical bacterial vs. atypical vs. viral). Common types include pneumococcal, mycoplasma, and viral pneumonia. Diagnosis involves chest x-ray, sputum culture, and clinical assessment. Treatment depends on severity but generally involves antibiotics and symptom relief. Complications can include lung abscesses or empyema if the infection spreads to the pleural space.
Streptococcus is a genus of bacteria that includes several species that are pathogens. They are spherical, gram-positive cocci that can be α-hemolytic, β-hemolytic, or non-hemolytic. Important pathogenic species include Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus), a cause of pharyngitis and skin infections, and Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus), a cause of neonatal sepsis and meningitis. Enterococcus faecalis is a frequent cause of hospital-acquired infections like urinary tract infections. Viridans streptococci commonly cause infective endocarditis. Identification involves culturing samples and observing hemolysis and sensitivity to antibiotics like bac
This document provides information about influenza viruses and influenza. It discusses the family of influenza viruses (Orthomyxoviridae), which includes influenza A, B, and C viruses. It describes the structure of influenza viruses and the antigenic shifts that occur. It also summarizes the pathogenesis of influenza, including transmission, replication in the body, symptoms, and potential complications. The document outlines influenza's epidemiology, seasonal patterns, pandemics, and global impact. It discusses diagnosis of influenza as well as prevention through vaccination and treatment with antiviral drugs.
Upper respiratory tract infections like the common cold, sinusitis, and pharyngitis are caused by viruses and bacteria that infect the nose, sinuses, and throat.
The common cold is usually caused by rhinoviruses and presents with nasal congestion and discharge. Sinusitis occurs when the sinuses become infected, often following a viral upper respiratory infection, and can cause facial pain and tenderness. Pharyngitis, or a sore throat, is commonly caused by streptococcus bacteria or viruses like adenovirus. Accurate diagnosis involves examining symptoms, signs, and testing mucus samples. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and in some bacterial cases using antibiotics.
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria which most commonly affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with active TB cough or sneeze. Common symptoms include cough, fever, night sweats and weight loss. Diagnosis involves chest x-ray and sputum culture. Treatment requires taking multiple antibiotic drugs daily for 6-9 months. Directly observed treatment short course chemotherapy (DOTS) involves health workers directly observing patients take their medications to ensure compliance. Tuberculosis remains a major global health issue and India has a high burden of cases.
This document discusses pneumonia, including its definition, causes, risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs caused by an infectious agent. Microorganisms can gain access to the lungs through various routes like aspiration or inhalation. The lungs are vulnerable because of their gas exchange function. Clinical features include cough, dyspnea, fever, and chest pain. Pneumonia is diagnosed based on clinical symptoms and chest x-ray findings. Community-acquired pneumonia is the most common type and is usually bacterial in nature.
This document summarizes several common bacterial diseases that can infect laboratory mouse colonies. It describes Citrobacter rodentium infection, which causes transient colonization and hyperplastic colonic lesions. It also discusses chronic respiratory disease caused by Mycoplasma pulmonis and CAR bacillus, resulting in respiratory signs. Additionally, it outlines Corynebacterium bovis infection, which causes hyperkeratotic skin lesions in nude mice. Helicobacter infections that can lead to hepatitis and typhlitis are also summarized. The document concludes with brief descriptions of Pasteurella pneumotropica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella infections in mice.
The document summarizes tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs and is a major public health problem worldwide, especially in developing countries. Factors like malnutrition, poverty, and HIV increase risk. The bacterium is transmitted via airborne droplets when infected people cough, sneeze, or speak. It can spread locally or via the bloodstream and lymphatics to other organs. Primary TB occurs in those never exposed, while secondary TB is a reactivation of a previous infection. Untreated, it can cause serious lung damage or spread.
The document discusses Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii, the fungus that causes Pneumocystis pneumonia. It was renamed in 1999. It describes the morphology of the organism including its trophozoite, precyst, and cyst forms. It also discusses the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis including staining techniques, treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and prevention with chemoprophylaxis for at-risk patients.
This document provides an overview of important streptococcal bacteria, including Streptococcus pyogenes, S. pneumoniae, S. agalactiae, and Enterococcus faecalis. It discusses the diseases each cause, including pharyngitis, pneumonia, neonatal sepsis and meningitis. It also covers topics like pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and control of streptococcal infections.
The causative agent of tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Belonging to the Family Mycobacteriaceae.
The other strains that cause tuberculosis are
M. bovis
M. africanum
M. carnetti
M. microti etc
The morphological features of the bacteria are that it is a small, straight, slender rod shaped, non-motile, non-capsulated, non-spore forming, aerobic organism.
The presence of mycolic acids in the cell wall is a characteristic feature due to which the bacteria gets resistance towards various antibiotics and disinfectants, and escapes from the phagocytic mechanism of the host.
This document provides an overview of infectious diseases and the immune system. It discusses the innate and adaptive immune response, key components of innate immunity like soluble and cellular factors, and adaptive responses involving B cells and T cells. It also summarizes various clinical pathogens including bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites; diagnostic approaches; antimicrobial mechanisms of action; and important antimicrobial drug classes.
404414_INTESTINAL AND LUMINAL PROTOZOA.pptTofikMohammed3
The document discusses intestinal and luminal protozoa. It begins by defining different types of parasites and their hosts. It then provides a taxonomic classification of protozoa, dividing them into four main phyla: Mastigophora, which move using flagella; Sarcodina, which move using pseudopodia; Apicomplexa, which have no organelle for movement; and Ciliophora, which move using cilia. It focuses on Entamoeba histolytica, describing its lifecycle involving a trophozoite stage and a cyst stage, adaptations like its contractile vacuole, pathogenesis involving digestion of host cells, and diagnosis and treatment.
The document describes the structure and histology of the urinary system. It discusses the anatomy of the kidney, including the renal cortex containing the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT), as well as the renal medulla containing loop of Henle. It also describes the ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra, noting the transitional epithelium lining these structures. Key cellular features of each component are highlighted, along with their functional significance in the urinary system.
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This document summarizes different types and stages of tuberculosis infection and disease. It describes primary tuberculosis occurring in previously unexposed individuals, which may lead to fibrosis and healing or progressive primary disease. It also describes secondary or reactivation tuberculosis occurring in sensitized hosts, which typically involves the lung apices and may progress to cavitary lesions if not treated properly. The document discusses the pathology, microbiology, immunology and clinical manifestations of tuberculosis at different stages.
The document discusses various types of bacteria and their classification. It describes important pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Pneumococcus, Clostridium, Mycobacterium, Neisseria, Haemophilus, Salmonella, Vibrio, Rickettsia, Chlamydia, Treponema, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli, Shigella, Pseudomonas, Enterobacteriaceae, Bacillus, and Actinomycetes. For each bacterium, it outlines the diseases they cause, virulence factors, and modes of transmission.
1. Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis and mainly affects the lungs. It is observed that 10 million active TB cases occur globally each year, with India reporting approximately 2.3 million cases.
2. Tuberculosis is transmitted when people inhale droplets from the coughs or sneezes of people with active pulmonary or laryngeal TB. It can also occur through ingesting milk from cows with bovine tuberculosis.
3. Granulomatous inflammation is the body's protective response to chronic infections or foreign material like tuberculosis bacteria. It forms structures called granulomas that wall off the pathogen to prevent spread while also destroying tissue over time.
Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges that covers the brain and spinal cord. It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi or other pathogens. Bacterial meningitis is the most common and severe form. The top causes are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, group B streptococci and Listeria monocytogenes. Symptoms include fever, headache and neck stiffness, but not all patients experience the full triad of symptoms.
Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes are common Gram-positive bacterial infections that cause issues like skin lesions, pneumonia, and rheumatic fever. They produce toxins and adhere to host cells to cause illness. Gram-negative bacteria like Neisseria meningitidis, Bordetella pertussis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa can lead to meningitis, whooping cough, and pneumonia through virulence factors and invasion of tissues. Yersinia pestis caused the bubonic plague through proliferation in lymph nodes and necrosis of tissues.
Systemic mycoses can result from inhalation of fungal spores that then differentiate into yeast or other forms in the lungs. This document focuses on four specific systemic mycoses: Coccidioides, Histoplasma, Blastomyces, and Paracoccidioides. Coccidioides causes valley fever through inhalation of spores in dry soil in the southwestern US and Central/South America. Paracoccidioides causes a similar disease through inhalation in parts of Central/South America. Both fungi exist as molds in soil and yeasts in tissues. Symptoms range from asymptomatic to disseminated disease. Diagnosis involves microscopy, culture, and ser
The document discusses pneumonia, specifically lobar pneumonia. It describes the pathogenesis, morphological features, and stages of lobar pneumonia including congestion, red hepatization, grey hepatization, and resolution. Complications of untreated lobar pneumonia are also discussed, such as organization of exudate leading to fibrosis, pleural effusions, empyema, lung abscesses, and metastatic infection.
Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs that is commonly caused by bacteria or viruses. It presents with symptoms like cough, fever, and chest pain. Pneumonia can be classified based on location in the lungs (lobar vs. bronchopneumonia) or cause (typical bacterial vs. atypical vs. viral). Common types include pneumococcal, mycoplasma, and viral pneumonia. Diagnosis involves chest x-ray, sputum culture, and clinical assessment. Treatment depends on severity but generally involves antibiotics and symptom relief. Complications can include lung abscesses or empyema if the infection spreads to the pleural space.
Streptococcus is a genus of bacteria that includes several species that are pathogens. They are spherical, gram-positive cocci that can be α-hemolytic, β-hemolytic, or non-hemolytic. Important pathogenic species include Streptococcus pyogenes (group A streptococcus), a cause of pharyngitis and skin infections, and Streptococcus agalactiae (group B streptococcus), a cause of neonatal sepsis and meningitis. Enterococcus faecalis is a frequent cause of hospital-acquired infections like urinary tract infections. Viridans streptococci commonly cause infective endocarditis. Identification involves culturing samples and observing hemolysis and sensitivity to antibiotics like bac
This document provides information about influenza viruses and influenza. It discusses the family of influenza viruses (Orthomyxoviridae), which includes influenza A, B, and C viruses. It describes the structure of influenza viruses and the antigenic shifts that occur. It also summarizes the pathogenesis of influenza, including transmission, replication in the body, symptoms, and potential complications. The document outlines influenza's epidemiology, seasonal patterns, pandemics, and global impact. It discusses diagnosis of influenza as well as prevention through vaccination and treatment with antiviral drugs.
Upper respiratory tract infections like the common cold, sinusitis, and pharyngitis are caused by viruses and bacteria that infect the nose, sinuses, and throat.
The common cold is usually caused by rhinoviruses and presents with nasal congestion and discharge. Sinusitis occurs when the sinuses become infected, often following a viral upper respiratory infection, and can cause facial pain and tenderness. Pharyngitis, or a sore throat, is commonly caused by streptococcus bacteria or viruses like adenovirus. Accurate diagnosis involves examining symptoms, signs, and testing mucus samples. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and in some bacterial cases using antibiotics.
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria which most commonly affects the lungs. It spreads through the air when people with active TB cough or sneeze. Common symptoms include cough, fever, night sweats and weight loss. Diagnosis involves chest x-ray and sputum culture. Treatment requires taking multiple antibiotic drugs daily for 6-9 months. Directly observed treatment short course chemotherapy (DOTS) involves health workers directly observing patients take their medications to ensure compliance. Tuberculosis remains a major global health issue and India has a high burden of cases.
This document discusses pneumonia, including its definition, causes, risk factors, diagnosis, and treatment. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs caused by an infectious agent. Microorganisms can gain access to the lungs through various routes like aspiration or inhalation. The lungs are vulnerable because of their gas exchange function. Clinical features include cough, dyspnea, fever, and chest pain. Pneumonia is diagnosed based on clinical symptoms and chest x-ray findings. Community-acquired pneumonia is the most common type and is usually bacterial in nature.
This document summarizes several common bacterial diseases that can infect laboratory mouse colonies. It describes Citrobacter rodentium infection, which causes transient colonization and hyperplastic colonic lesions. It also discusses chronic respiratory disease caused by Mycoplasma pulmonis and CAR bacillus, resulting in respiratory signs. Additionally, it outlines Corynebacterium bovis infection, which causes hyperkeratotic skin lesions in nude mice. Helicobacter infections that can lead to hepatitis and typhlitis are also summarized. The document concludes with brief descriptions of Pasteurella pneumotropica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella infections in mice.
The document summarizes tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs and is a major public health problem worldwide, especially in developing countries. Factors like malnutrition, poverty, and HIV increase risk. The bacterium is transmitted via airborne droplets when infected people cough, sneeze, or speak. It can spread locally or via the bloodstream and lymphatics to other organs. Primary TB occurs in those never exposed, while secondary TB is a reactivation of a previous infection. Untreated, it can cause serious lung damage or spread.
The document discusses Pneumocystis jirovecii, formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii, the fungus that causes Pneumocystis pneumonia. It was renamed in 1999. It describes the morphology of the organism including its trophozoite, precyst, and cyst forms. It also discusses the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis including staining techniques, treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and prevention with chemoprophylaxis for at-risk patients.
This document provides an overview of important streptococcal bacteria, including Streptococcus pyogenes, S. pneumoniae, S. agalactiae, and Enterococcus faecalis. It discusses the diseases each cause, including pharyngitis, pneumonia, neonatal sepsis and meningitis. It also covers topics like pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and control of streptococcal infections.
The causative agent of tuberculosis is Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Belonging to the Family Mycobacteriaceae.
The other strains that cause tuberculosis are
M. bovis
M. africanum
M. carnetti
M. microti etc
The morphological features of the bacteria are that it is a small, straight, slender rod shaped, non-motile, non-capsulated, non-spore forming, aerobic organism.
The presence of mycolic acids in the cell wall is a characteristic feature due to which the bacteria gets resistance towards various antibiotics and disinfectants, and escapes from the phagocytic mechanism of the host.
This document provides an overview of infectious diseases and the immune system. It discusses the innate and adaptive immune response, key components of innate immunity like soluble and cellular factors, and adaptive responses involving B cells and T cells. It also summarizes various clinical pathogens including bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites; diagnostic approaches; antimicrobial mechanisms of action; and important antimicrobial drug classes.
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404414_INTESTINAL AND LUMINAL PROTOZOA.pptTofikMohammed3
The document discusses intestinal and luminal protozoa. It begins by defining different types of parasites and their hosts. It then provides a taxonomic classification of protozoa, dividing them into four main phyla: Mastigophora, which move using flagella; Sarcodina, which move using pseudopodia; Apicomplexa, which have no organelle for movement; and Ciliophora, which move using cilia. It focuses on Entamoeba histolytica, describing its lifecycle involving a trophozoite stage and a cyst stage, adaptations like its contractile vacuole, pathogenesis involving digestion of host cells, and diagnosis and treatment.
The document describes the structure and histology of the urinary system. It discusses the anatomy of the kidney, including the renal cortex containing the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT), as well as the renal medulla containing loop of Henle. It also describes the ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra, noting the transitional epithelium lining these structures. Key cellular features of each component are highlighted, along with their functional significance in the urinary system.
The document provides information about the posterior abdominal wall and related structures. It discusses the bones that make up the posterior abdominal wall including the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and ilium. It also describes muscles of the posterior abdominal wall such as the psoas major, quadratus lumborum, and transversus abdominis. Additionally, it lists structures that are located in the posterior abdomen including the abdominal aorta and related blood vessels.
Calcium and phosphate homeostasis is regulated by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D. PTH stimulates intestinal calcium absorption and bone resorption to increase calcium levels while vitamin D enhances intestinal calcium and phosphate absorption. Drugs used to regulate bone mineral homeostasis include PTH, vitamin D, calcitonin, bisphosphonates, and estrogens. These agents work by affecting bone formation/resorption as well as intestinal calcium absorption and renal calcium handling. Adverse effects include hypercalcemia, gastrointestinal issues, and bone pain.
Urticaria is a common skin disorder caused by localized mast cell degranulation, leading to itchy wheals that typically develop and fade within hours. Acute eczematous dermatitis presents as erythematous papules and plaques that can become crusted or scaled due to conditions like atopic dermatitis. Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by well-demarcated salmon-colored plaques covered in silver scale. Lichen planus features purple, pruritic planar papules in a symmetric distribution. Common benign skin tumors include seborrheic keratoses, actinic keratoses, and melanocytic nevi, while squamous cell
1. The document discusses obstructive lung diseases, which are characterized by increased resistance to airflow due to obstruction in the airways. The two main categories are chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma.
2. COPD commonly results from cigarette smoking and is characterized by irreversible airflow obstruction. The two main disorders that constitute COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis, which often overlap.
3. Emphysema involves destruction of alveolar walls leading to enlarged air spaces. Cigarette smoke and an imbalance of proteases cause lung damage and inflammation. On pathology, emphysema shows destruction of alveolar walls without fibrosis.
Shock is a life-threatening medical condition caused by inadequate blood flow throughout the body, which can lead to organ damage and death if not treated rapidly. Shock can result from various causes that impair blood flow such as blood loss, heart problems, infection, or neurological issues. The stages of shock progress from compensated to progressive to irreversible, with signs and symptoms ranging from anxiety and pale skin to organ failure and death.
This document discusses the embryology of the respiratory system. It begins with the development of the laryngotracheal diverticulum from the foregut during the 4th week. This divides into the trachea and esophagus. Lung buds form and divide to form the bronchi. The larynx, trachea, lungs and associated structures continue developing through pseudoglandular, canalicular, terminal sac and alveolar stages. Surfactant production is critical for lung maturation. Common congenital anomalies include tracheoesophageal fistula and lung hypoplasia.
This document provides an introduction to basic first aid. It discusses the history and need for first aid, defines first aid, and outlines the roles and responsibilities of first aid providers. It describes the aims of first aid as preserving life, preventing complications, and promoting healing. It emphasizes the importance of first aid training and lists some key benefits such as helping oneself and others during emergencies. The document provides guidance on general procedures for providing first aid, including assessing safety, securing the scene, and comforting victims. It also outlines characteristics important for first aiders such as being resourceful, tactful, and sympathetic.
The document provides an overview of clinical anatomy of the upper limb, covering common fractures, nerve injuries, and occlusions of blood vessels. It describes fractures of bones such as the clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, and bones of the hand. Nerve injuries discussed include brachial plexus injuries, radial nerve injuries, and median/ulnar nerve injuries. Specific conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome and Dupuytren's contracture are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of grammar topics covered in an English language course, including modals and infinitives for giving advice, the present perfect tense, and conditionals. For modals and infinitives, it gives examples of using should, ought to, and had better to express advice. For the present perfect tense, it discusses uses with already, just, yet, for, since, so far, ever, and never. It then covers four types of conditionals - first (probable), second (improbable), third (impossible), and zero - providing examples for each.
The document provides an overview of parasitology and techniques for diagnosing parasitic infections through stool examination. It discusses factors required for reliable diagnosis such as travel history and appropriate specimen collection. It also describes various stool examination techniques including direct wet mounts, concentration methods, and permanent staining. Flotation and sedimentation are outlined as concentration procedures. Considerations for stool collection kits and preservatives are also summarized.
This document summarizes several neuromuscular diseases. It first describes myasthenia gravis as an autoimmune disorder causing weakness that worsens with exertion, often involving extraocular muscles. It is diagnosed through clinical exams, autoantibody identification, and electrophysiology. Dermatomyositis is then covered as a systemic autoimmune disease causing muscle weakness and skin changes, often affecting children. Inflammatory myopathies like polymyositis and inclusion body myositis are discussed alongside toxic and muscular dystrophies like Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Duchenne is severe and early-onset while Becker is milder with later onset; both involve mutations disrupting the dystrophin
The document summarizes the development of the musculoskeletal system from mesenchymal tissues. It describes how:
1. Somites differentiate into sclerotome which forms bones and dermomyotome which forms muscles and dermis.
2. The skull develops from both endochondral and intramembranous ossification, with parts originating from neural crest and paraxial mesoderm.
3. The vertebral column develops through endochondral ossification, forming cartilage models that are later replaced with bone.
4. Ribs develop from costal processes of vertebrae, while the sternum develops from sternal bars.
5. Muscles develop from dermomyotome splitting
This document describes the major arteries, veins and lymphatic drainage of the lower limb. It discusses the gluteal, internal pudendal, obturator, femoral, profunda femoris, popliteal, anterior tibial, posterior tibial arteries and their branches. It also describes the great saphenous vein, small saphenous vein, femoral vein and lymphatic drainage of the lower limb.
The document summarizes the major nerves of the lower limb, including the femoral nerve, obturator nerve, sciatic nerve, tibial nerve, and common fibular nerve. It describes the formation, course, and branches of each nerve as well as the muscles and skin areas they innervate. The tibial and common fibular nerves are terminal branches of the sciatic nerve. In the foot, the tibial nerve bifurcates into the medial and lateral plantar nerves, which supply intrinsic foot muscles and skin.
The document provides the code of medical ethics for doctors in Ethiopia as published by the Ethiopian Medical Association in March 2010. It outlines ethical guidelines for doctors in their relationships with patients, other medical professionals, and the community. The code covers issues like maintaining confidentiality, obtaining informed consent, non-discrimination in treatment, avoiding harm, upholding professional standards, and other duties and obligations of doctors. It aims to give doctors appropriate guidance on acceptable professional behavior.
Medical ethics examines the moral issues that arise in medicine. It has a long history dating back to ancient times when diseases were viewed as supernatural. Over time, medicine became more scientific and data-driven. In Ethiopia, modern medicine was introduced in the 16th century and hospitals were established starting in the early 20th century. There are several frameworks for analyzing medical ethics issues, including utilitarianism which focuses on producing the greatest benefit for the greatest number, deontology which emphasizes moral duties and rules, and virtue ethics which focuses on good character.
Cholinergic drugs stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system by mimicking the effects of acetylcholine. They are used to treat conditions like glaucoma, urinary retention, myasthenia gravis, and dry mouth. Common side effects include increased salivation, sweating, nausea, and diarrhea due to overstimulation of muscarinic receptors. Nurses monitor patients for therapeutic effects like improved bowel and bladder function while also watching for potential adverse effects. Dosing is important to maximize benefits and avoid complications.
The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary body functions and is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division prepares the body for fight or flight while the parasympathetic division controls functions during rest. Autonomic disorders can cause a variety of symptoms like dizziness, sweating issues, digestive problems, and urinary/defecation issues. Diagnosis involves tests like tilt table testing and sweat testing. Fainting occurs when blood flow to the brain is reduced, often due to standing up, and more than 1/3 of people who faint may faint again within 3 years. Upright posture shifts blood to the lower body, so the body has mechanisms to maintain blood pressure and flow to the brain
Rasamanikya is a excellent preparation in the field of Rasashastra, it is used in various Kushtha Roga, Shwasa, Vicharchika, Bhagandara, Vatarakta, and Phiranga Roga. In this article Preparation& Comparative analytical profile for both Formulationon i.e Rasamanikya prepared by Kushmanda swarasa & Churnodhaka Shodita Haratala. The study aims to provide insights into the comparative efficacy and analytical aspects of these formulations for enhanced therapeutic outcomes.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Does Over-Masturbation Contribute to Chronic Prostatitis.pptxwalterHu5
In some case, your chronic prostatitis may be related to over-masturbation. Generally, natural medicine Diuretic and Anti-inflammatory Pill can help mee get a cure.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
2. Bacterial Diseases of the Upper Respiratory
System
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Streptococcal Respiratory Diseases
Properties
Gram positive in reaction
Cocci arranged in pairs or chains during growth
Contain normal flora & pathogenic Spp.
Facultatively anaerobic
3. Cont.…
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Classification of Streptococci
Based on:
1. Hemolytic rxns on blood agar
Beta haemolytic streptococci; Complete disruption of erythrocytes with clearing of
the blood around the bacterial colonies on BA is called β hemolysis. e.g. S. pyogenes, S.
agalactiae
Alpha haemolytic streptococci: partial/Incomplete lysis of erythrocytes s called α
hemolysis.
e.g. S. pneumoniae
Non-haemolytic or gamma streptococci: Other streptococci are non-hemolytic
(sometimes called gamma hemolysis). e.g. Enterococci
2. Serologic specificity (Lancefield groups A–H)
3. Battery of Biochemical Tests:
4. Group A beta -Hemolytic Streptococci (Streptococcus
pyogens)
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Is the major cause of bacterial pharyngitis and scarlet and rheumatic fevers.
The bacterium shows beta hemolysis after 24 hours on blood agar.
have a number of structures, enzymes, and toxins that enable them to
survive as pathogens in the body. These include the following:
M protein: causes inhibition of complement component C3b, thereby
interfering with opsonization
The hyaluronic acid capsule may “camouflage” the bacterium from
phagocytes.
Streptokinase's are enzymes that break down blood clots, presumably
enabling group A streptococci to spread rapidly through damaged tissues.
5. Cont..
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C5a peptidase is an enzyme that breaks down complement protein C5a. With this
enzyme, S. pyogenes decreases the movement of leukocytes into the site of infection.
Pyrogenic (also called erythrogenic) toxins : stimulate leukocytes to release
cytokines that in turn stimulate fever, rash, and shock.
Streptolysins: lyse erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
Pathogenesis
People spread S. pyogenes via respiratory droplets.
Streptococci cause a variety of illnesses depending on the virulence factors.
S. pyogenes frequently infects the pharynx, but the resulting disease is usually temporary, lasting
only until adaptive immune responses against bacterial antigens (particularly M protein and
streptolysins) clear the pathogen, usually within a week.
Typically, strep throat and streptococcal bronchitis occur only when:-
o Normal competing microbiota are missing
6. Signs and Symptoms
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Streptococcal pharyngitis
Laryngitis and bronchitis
Scarlet fever
Complications of some cases of untreated streptococcal pharyngitis
are acute glomerulonephritis and rheumatic fever
7. Cont..
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Epidemiology
Most cases of streptococcal pharyngitis occur during the winter and spring
among elementary and middle school children, probably because of
crowded conditions.
One person can spread sufficient bacteria to cause disease by coughing
or sneezing.
Laboratory identification
Specimens for laboratory analysis can be obtained from throat swabs,
sputum, and blood.
S. pyogenes forms characteristic small colonies surrounded by a
large zone of beta hemolysis on sheep blood agar.
This organism is highly sensitive to bacitracin.
Immunological tests
9. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
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Pathogen and Virulence Factors
Is non-endospore-forming, Gram-positive bacteria.
C. diphtheriae is non-capsulate, non-motile, "club-shaped“
bacteria.
Facultative anaerobe
Arranged in angular fashion like Chinese lettering arrangement
Colonizing the skin and the respiratory, gastrointestinal, urinary and
genital tracts.
Virulent C. diphtheriae contains a diphtheria toxin.
The toxin gene is directly responsible for the signs and symptoms of
diphtheria.
10. Pathogenesis and Epidemiology
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C. diphtheriae is transmitted from person to person via respiratory droplets or
skin contact.
Infections with C. diphtheriae have different effects depending on a host’s
immune status and the site of infection.
Infections in immune individuals are asymptomatic
In immunocompromised individuals most severe, resulting in the sudden and
rapid signs and symptoms of diphtheria and cause of childhood death.
12. Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
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Lab. Diagnosis:
Specimens:
Include throat, and, or nasopharyngeal swabs to confirm a
diagnosis of throat diphtheria, and a skin swab if cutaneous
diphtheria is suspected
Microscopy:
C. diphtheriae is gram positive bacteria appear in cluster like
Chinese letters
Culture
C. diphtheriae is facultative anaerobe at optimum temperature of
35–37 ºC.
13. Treatment
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o Early administration of antitoxin formed by the organisms at their site of entry and
multiplication
o The most important aspect of treatment is the administration of antitoxin
(immunoglobulins against the toxin) to neutralize diphtheria toxin.
o Antimicrobial drugs (Penicillin or Erythromycin)
o Penicillin or erythromycin kills Corynebacterium, preventing the synthesis of more
toxin
14. Bacterial Diseases of the Lower Respiratory
System
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Pneumococcal Pneumonia: caused by Streptococcus also called
pneumococcal pneumonia—is the most common type of bacterial pneumonia,
accounting for most cases of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP).
Pathogen and Virulence Factors
Streptococcus Pneumoniae (Pneumococcus)
S. pneumoniae are gram-positive, nonmotile, encapsulated cocci.
In sputum pneumococci are typically arranged in pairs (diplococci); each
coccus is somewhat elongated and pointed at one end but rounded at the
other (lancet-shaped).
S. pneumoniae is the most common cause of pneumonia and otitis
media and an important cause of meningitis and bacteremia
15. Cont..
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Pathogenesis and Epidemiology
Pathogenic pneumococci secrete an attachment molecule
Protein that mediates binding of the bacterium to epithelial cells of the
pharynx.
Pneumococci are inhaled occasionally from the pharynx into the lung and
damaged either by a previous viral disease, such as influenza or measles,
or by other conditions, such as alcoholism, congestive heart failure, or
diabetes mellitus.
Virulent serotypes also have polysaccharide capsules that protect them
from lysis by phagocytes and pneumococci that live in and eventually kill
16. Cont…
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As the bacteria multiply in the alveoli, they damage the lining of the alveoli,
allowing erythrocytes, leukocytes, and blood plasma to enter the lung.
This fluid fills the alveoli, reducing the lung’s ability to transfer oxygen to the
blood and causing the pneumonia.
It occurs most frequently in fall and winter in children or groups whose immune
responses are not fully active
17. Signs and Symptoms Pneumococcal pneumonia
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Fever
Chills
Congestion
Cough
Chest pain,
Short, rapid breathing, and possibly nausea and vomiting.
18. Laboratory diagnosis
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Specimens for laboratory evaluation can be obtained from a
nasopharyngeal swab, blood, pus, sputum, or spinal fluid.
α-Hemolytic colonies appear on blood agar
Lancet-shaped, gram-positive diplococci are observed on a Gram stain of
the sample.
Growth of these bacteria is inhibited by low concentrations of the
optochin, and the cells are lysed by bile acids (bile solubility positive).
19. Treatment
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Penicillin has long been the drug of choice against S. pneumoniae,
though about a third of pneumococcal isolates are now penicillin
resistant.
Cephalosporin, erythromycin, clindamycin, vancomycin, or
fluoroquinolones are effective alternative treatments.
20. Mycoplasmal Pneumonia
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Mycoplasmal pneumonia is the leading type of pneumonia in children and
young adults, caused by Mycoplasma pneumoniae.
Pathogen and Virulence Factors
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is strictly aerobic and encapsulated.
Lack of cell walls, allowing them to have a variety of shapes.
Further, mycoplasmas have lipids in their cytoplasmic membranes called
sterols, a feature lacking in other prokaryotes.
Microbes that can grow and reproduce independently of other cells.
Their diameters range from 0.1 μm to 0.8 μm.
Originally, scientists thought mycoplasmas were viruses because their
small size and flexibility enable them to squeeze through the pores of
filters that were then commonly used to remove bacteria from solutions;
however, mycoplasmas contain both RNA and DNA, and they divide by
binary fission—traits that viruses lack.
21. Pathogenesis
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Attachment of M. pneumoniae to the base of cilia (p1,p30,p116)
Causes the cilia to stop action, and colonization eventually kills the
epithelial cells.
This interrupts the normal removal of mucus from the respiratory tract by
the ciliary escalator, allowing colonization by other bacteria and causing a
buildup of mucus that irritates the respiratory tract.
22. Signs and Symptoms
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Fever, malaise, headache, sore throat, and excessive sweating, are not typical
of other types of pneumonia; thus is called primary atypical pneumonia.
Primary atypical pneumonia may last for several weeks, but it is usually not
severe enough to require hospitalization or to cause death.
Because symptoms can be mild, the disease is also sometimes called walking
pneumonia
23. Epidemiology
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Nasal secretions spread M. pneumoniae among people in close contacts,
such as classmates, family members, and dormitory residents.
It is the most common form of pneumonia seen in high school and college
students.
Primary atypical pneumonia occurs throughout the year.
.
24. Laboratory diagnosis
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Diagnosis of primary atypical pneumonia is difficult because mycoplasmas
are small and difficult to detect in clinical specimens or tissue samples.
Further, mycoplasmas grow slowly in culture, requiring two to six weeks
before colonies are visible.
Colonies of M. pneumoniae have a grainy appearance when the bacteria
grow on solid surfaces.
Complement fixation, hemagglutination, and immunofluorescent tests
confirm a diagnosis, but such tests are nonspecific.
25. Treatment and prevention
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Treatment
Erythromycin
Prevention
Prevention is difficult because patients are often infected for long periods without signs or
symptoms.
Nevertheless, frequent handwashing and avoidance of contact with contaminated fomites can
limit the spread of the pathogen.
No vaccine against M. pneumonia is available.
26. Klebsiella pneumoniae
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Is an opportunistic pathogen that infects the respiratory systems of
humans and animals following inhalation.
It is a nonmotile, Gram-negative rod that produces a prominent capsule
giving Klebsiella colonies a mucoid appearance and protecting the
bacterium from phagocytosis.
K. pneumoniae may also be involved in meningitis, wound infections,
and urinary tract infections.
Pathogenesis
K. pneumoniae kills alveolar cells and often invades the blood, resulting in
bacteremia.
They release endotoxin, which can trigger shock and disseminated
intravascular coagulation, leading to death.
27. Signs and Symptoms
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Besides the common signs and symptoms of bacterial pneumonia—
coughing, fever, and chest pain
Often involves destruction of alveoli, resulting in the production of
thick, bloody sputum.
Mortality rates are higher than with pneumococcal or Mycoplasmal
pneumonias
29. Laboratory diagnosis
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Specimen: Sputum
Smear: Gram-negative rods
Culture: Large, mucoid, lactose-fermenting colonies on
MacConkey agar.
Treatment
Cephalosporin, and quinolones
Prevention
No vaccine is available.
Prevention involves good aseptic technique by health care workers.
30. Genus Bordetella
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Strictly aerobic, non-spore forming, non motile ,gram negative coccobacilli
that appears singly or in pairs ,Catalase +ve
Fastidious organism (require blood supplemented medium)
Bordetella species include
o B. pertussis, B. parapertussis, B. bronchoseptica,
31. Cont.…
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Bordetella pertussis is medically importance species
Bordetella pertussis, a highly communicable and important pathogen of
humans, causes whooping cough (pertussis).
Bordetella parapertussis :can cause a similar disease.
Bordetella bronchiseptica: causes diseases in animals, and only
occasionally causes respiratory disease and bacteremia in humans,
primarily in immunocompromised hosts.
32. Bordetella pertussis
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Virulence Factors
Various adhesins and toxins mediate the disease.
Two adhesins are filamentous hemagglutinin and pertussis toxin.
Four toxins are:
Pertussis toxin: interferes with ciliated epithelial cells’ metabolism,
resulting in increased mucus production. (Note that pertussis toxin is both
an adhesin and a toxin.)
Adenylate cyclase toxin: which triggers increased mucus production and
inhibits leukocyte movement, phagocytosis, and killing
Dermonecrotic toxin: which causes localized constriction and
hemorrhage of blood vessels, resulting in cell death and tissue destruction
Tracheal cytotoxin: which at low concentrations inhibits the movement of
cilia on respiratory cells.
33. Pathogenesis
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Via its adhesins, B. pertussis binds to cilia in the trachea and interferes with
their action
Filamentous hemagglutinin also binds to the cytoplasmic membranes of
neutrophils, initiating endocytosis of the bacterium.
B. pertussis survives within the phagocytes, evading the immune system.
Pertussis toxin causes infected cells to produce more receptors for
filamentous hemagglutinin, leading to further bacterial attachment.
Pertussis progresses through three phases
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After an incubation period of about 2 weeks, the "catarrhal stage"
develops, with mild coughing and sneezing.
During this stage, large numbers of organisms are sprayed in droplets, and
the patient is highly infectious but not very ill.
During the "paroxysmal" stage, the cough develops its explosive
character
This leads to rapid exhaustion and may be associated with vomiting
35. Cont.…
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The "whoop" and major complications occur predominantly in infants.
Major complications like encephalitis.
The white blood count is high (16–30 x103/µL), with an absolute lymphocytosis.
After 3-4 weeks the disease enters
Convalescent stage
Frequency and severity of the coughing gradually decrease
But secondary complications can occur
36. Lab diagnosis
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Specimens:
A saline nasal wash is the preferred specimen.
Culture
For the isolation of B. pertussis must be cultured as soon as possible
after collecting the sample.
A selective and enriched medium such as charcoal cephalexin
blood agar is recommended for the primary isolation of B. pertussis.
Small, smooth, and convex colonies
38. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
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General characteristics
Long, slender rods that are non motile
Strictly aerobic & non – sporulated
Cell walls contain unique class of very long-chain fatty acids (mycolic
acids).
39. Cont.…
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Cell walls contain mycolic acid, which is responsible for the unique
characteristics of this pathogen, including:
Slow growth
Protection from lysis when cells are phagocytized
Resistance to Gram staining, detergents, and many common
antimicrobial drugs, but not to heat or ultraviolet irradiation
40. Virulence Factors
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M.TB does not possess the classic bacterial virulence factors such as
toxins, capsules, and fimbriae.
However, a number of structural and physiological properties of the
bacterium are contributed to bacterial virulence and the pathology of
tuberculosis
The cell wall of M.TB is thick consisting of
Mycolic fatty acid 60% (long chain fatty acids) impermissive
to different substances
41. Epidemiology
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• The principal mode of transmission is person-to-person transmission by
inhalation of the aerosol or air-borne droplet that contains M.tb bacilli
A total of 1.6 million people died from TB in 2021 (including 187 000 people
with HIV). Worldwide.
TB is the 13th leading cause of death and the second leading infectious killer
after COVID-19 (above HIV and AIDS).
42. Progression of active tuberculosis infection
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A. Primary tuberculosis: occurs in a person who had no previous contact
with the organism.
1. Mycobacterium typically infects the respiratory tract via inhalation of respiratory
droplets from infected individuals.
2. Macrophages in alveoli phagocytize mycobacteria but are unable to digest them, in
part because the bacterium inhibits the fusion of lysosomes to endocytic vesicles.
3. Bacteria replicate freely within macrophages, gradually killing the phagocytes.
Bacteria released from dead macrophages are phagocytized by other macrophages
and beginning the new cycle
43. B. Disseminated tuberculosis
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Results when macrophages carry the pathogen via blood and lymph
nodes to other sites, including bone marrow, spleen, kidneys, spinal
cord, and brain, leading to the destruction of tissue and clinical illness; for
example,
tuberculous osteomyelitis, or
tuberculous meningitis
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C. Reactivation(secondary) of tuberculosis:
Reactivation is apparently caused by an impairment in immune status,
often associated with malnutrition, alcoholism, advanced age, or severe
stress.
Immunosuppressive medication or diseases such as diabetes and,
particularly, AIDS, are common preconditions.
45. Clinical Presentation
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• Weight loss
• Productive cough (For more than 15 days)
• Chest pain
• High fever
• Night sweating
• Blood stained sputum
• M.tuberclosis primarily cause pulmonary disease but it can affect any
organ of the body.
46. Laboratory identification:
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Specimens: Sputum, CSF, Biopsy
1. Microscopic examination
Ziehl Neelson staining / AFS
Specific
Rapid
Cheap
Once the Mycobacteria is stained with primary stain it can
not be decolorized with acid, so-named as acid-fast
bacteria.
47. Procedure
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1. Specked, purulent sputum for smear preparation (do not use
saliva)
2. Heat fix the dried smear,
Since M. tuberculosis can infect almost any organ in the body, the
laboratory could receive a variety of extrapulmonary specimens.
E.g. body fluid, tissue, pus, CSF, urine, etc.
3. Cover the smear with carbon-fuchsin stain
48. Cont.…
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4. Wash off the stain with clean water
5. Cover the smear with 3% acid alcohol for 5 minutes or until the
smear is sufficiently decolorized. i.e. pale pink.
6. Wash well with clean water
7. Cover the smear with methylene blue for 1 – 2 minutes.
49. Cont…
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8. Wash off the stain with clean water.
9. Wipe the back of the slide clean, and place it in a draining
rack for the smear to air dry.
10. Examine the smear microscopically, using the 100x oil
immersion object.
50. Results
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• AFB............. Red, straight or slightly curved rods,
occurring single or in a small groups
• Cells......................................... Blue
• Background Material ……….. Blue
51. REPORTING OF SPUTUM SMEAR
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• When any definite red bacilli are seen report the smear as AFB positive
and give an indication of the number of bacteria present as follows:
1- 9 AFB /100 fields -------------- Report the exact number
10 – 100 AFB/100 fields ------------------ report +
1 – 10 AFB/field --------------------------- report ++
More than 10 AFB/field ------------------ report +++
When no AFB are seen after examining 300 fields report the smear as ‘
No AFB are seen’ do not report as “Negative” because organisms may
be present but not seen in those fields examined.
52. 2. Mycobacterial culture
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There are three formulations
a. Broth media: E.g. Middlebrook 7 H9 & 7H12
• Support growth of small inocula/enrichment media
• Growth is more rapid than solid media
53. B. Semi - solid agar media
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Include Middle brook 7H10 & 7H11 media
The media are used for:
Observing colony morphology (3-8 weeks)
Susceptibility testing
Selective media
54. C. Lowenstein - Jensen egg based media
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Contain defined glycerol, and complex organic substances (eg, fresh eggs or
egg yolks, potato flour, and other ingredients in various combinations).
Malachite green is included to inhibit other bacteria.
Is a solid media used as a selective media with added antibiotics.
Requires about 3 - 8 weeks for growth to occur