Chapter 3 Person-Environment Congruence (PEC) Theories: Frank Parsons, Theory of Work Adjustment, John Holland, and a Values-Based Approach Things to Remember Major historical events in the history of career development theorizing The major tenets of TWA and Holland’s theory of vocational choice Cultural values, their role in human behavior, and Brown’s values-based theory Similarities and differences between the theory of work adjustment and Holland’s theory O*NET applications of Holland’s and TWA theories The theories presented in this chapter are traditional theories; they were once characterized as trait and factor theories, because needs, values, and personality types were derived via statistical techniques known as factor analysis. Buford Stefflre, a counselor educator at Michigan State University for many years, is reputed to have coined the phrase, “There is nothing as practical as a good theory.” When this statement is conveyed to students, they are at best skeptical. Isn’t using theory and practical in the same sentence oxymoronic? Theories are obviously not fact, and what most students want are proven practices that they can use to help their clients. The problem is that many of our practices have not been investigated to a degree that will allow us to say unequivocally that they work. A good theory provides a framework for designing practices. I believe that Stefflre was right! The Purposes and Evaluation of Theory In Chapter 1, career development was defined as a lifelong process involving psychological, sociological, educational, economic, physical, and cultural factors that influence individuals’ selection of, adjustment to, and advancement in the occupations that collectively make up their careers. Career development is, to say the least, a complex process. Theories provide us with simplified pictures or, as Krumboltz (1994) prefers, road maps to the career development process. There are “good” theories and “bad” theories. Krumboltz (1994) states: “Our psychological theories are as good as we know how to make them so far, but in all probability they are far short of being accurate” (p. 11). However, good theories have distinct characteristics—such as well-defined terms and constructs—that can easily be interpreted by practitioners and researchers. Just as importantly, the relationships among the constructs in the theory are clearly articulated. If the terms are clearly defined and logically interrelated, practitioners can use them as guides to practice, and researchers can generate research to test the assumptions of the theory. Moreover, good theories are comprehensive in that they explain the career development process for all groups, including men and women and individuals from various cultures and from all socioeconomic strata. Well-constructed theories also serve other purposes. For example, they help us understand why people choose careers and then become dissatisfied with them. They also allow us to interpret d ...

1. Chapter 3 Person-Environment Congruence (PEC) Theories:
Frank Parsons, Theory of Work Adjustment, John Holland, and
a Values-Based Approach
Things to Remember
Major historical events in the history of career development
theorizing
The major tenets of TWA and Holland’s theory of vocational
choice
Cultural values, their role in human behavior, and Brown’s
values-based theory
Similarities and differences between the theory of work
adjustment and Holland’s theory
O*NET applications of Holland’s and TWA theories
The theories presented in this chapter are traditional theories;
they were once characterized as trait and factor theories,
because needs, values, and personality types were derived via
statistical techniques known as factor analysis.
Buford Stefflre, a counselor educator at Michigan State
University for many years, is reputed to have coined the phrase,
“There is nothing as practical as a good theory.” When this
statement is conveyed to students, they are at best skeptical.
Isn’t using theory and practical in the same sentence
oxymoronic? Theories are obviously not fact, and what most
students want are proven practices that they can use to help
their clients. The problem is that many of our practices have not
been investigated to a degree that will allow us to say
unequivocally that they work. A good theory provides a
framework for designing practices. I believe that Stefflre was

2. right!
The Purposes and Evaluation of Theory
In Chapter 1, career development was defined as a lifelong
process involving psychological, sociological, educational,
economic, physical, and cultural factors that influence
individuals’ selection of, adjustment to, and advancement in the
occupations that collectively make up their careers. Career
development is, to say the least, a complex process. Theories
provide us with simplified pictures or, as Krumboltz (1994)
prefers, road maps to the career development process.
There are “good” theories and “bad” theories. Krumboltz (1994)
states: “Our psychological theories are as good as we know how
to make them so far, but in all probability they are far short of
being accurate” (p. 11). However, good theories have distinct
characteristics—such as well-defined terms and constructs —that
can easily be interpreted by practitioners and researchers. Just
as importantly, the relationships among the constructs in the
theory are clearly articulated. If the terms are clearly defined
and logically interrelated, practitioners can use them as guides
to practice, and researchers can generate research to test the
assumptions of the theory. Moreover, good theories are
comprehensive in that they explain the career development
process for all groups, including men and women and
individuals from various cultures and from all socioeconomic
strata.
Well-constructed theories also serve other purposes. For
example, they help us understand why people choose careers
and then become dissatisfied with them. They also allow us to
interpret data about career development that have been
generated in the past, are being generated in the present, and
will be generated in the future. Researchers and practitioners
have long been aware that children and adults sex-type careers
and that these stereotypes influence career choices. In Chapter

3. 4, Gottfredson’s theory (1981, 2002) helps us understand why
this occurs. Well-developed theories also help us account for all
internal and external factors that influence career development,
including cognitions about careers and affective responses to
various career-related events (Brown & Brooks, 1996;
Krumboltz, 1994; Savickas, 2013). Well-constructed theories
are also parsimonious, which means that they are set forth in the
simplest, most succinct fashion necessary to describe the
phenomena involved. To summarize, theories of career choice
and development serve three functions:
Facilitate the understanding of the forces that influence career
choice and development
Stimulate research that will help to better clarify career choice
and the development process
Provide a guide to practice in the absence of empirical
guidelines
A History of Career Development Theorizing
One aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the history
of theorizing about career choice and development. It is
generally recognized that the forerunner of modern theories of
career development appeared in 1909 in Choosing Your
Vocation by Frank Parsons. Parsons’s tripartite model—
understanding one’s self, understanding the requirements of the
jobs available, and choosing one job based on true logic—
underpinned career counseling and career development practice
into the middle of the twentieth century.
Parson’s model had a number of problems given the time in
which it was published. Perhaps the major issue confronting
practitioners of the time was that there were no tools that could
be used to measure the personal traits of their clients. Similarly,
there was no single source of occupational information other

4. than personal exploration to aid counselors and psychologists in
helping their clients to find suitable occupations. Therefore, the
matching process that Parsons envisioned was not well
informed. It was not until World War I—when a committee of
psychometricians headed by Ralph Yerkes developed the Army
Alpha—that instruments that could be used to measure human
traits such as intellect and personality began to become
available. The Army Alpha test measured verbal ability and
numerical ability (scholastic aptitude) as well as ability to
follow directions and general knowledge. Yerkes and his
committee’s work stimulated the testing industry, and after
World War I literally dozens of psychometric instruments
became available to practitioners. In 1938, the Dictionary of
Occupational Titles—which emphasized blue collar jobs—was
published by the Department of Labor. This closed Parson’s
loop of (1) identifying personal characteristics and (2) matching
them to jobs.
Today, we understand that the idea of using “true logic” to
make choices to match personal characteristics to jobs is an
unrealizable pipe dream, because the decision-making process is
filtered through myriad factors, including self-confidence, role
relationships, sex-role identity, values, and so forth. Perhaps
because there were no other options, the person-environment
congruence (PEC) model held sway until well past the middle of
the twentieth century. Moreover, as we shall see, the trait and
factor model is still very much a part of the contemporary
career development scene.
However, in the 1950s and 1960s a period of intense theorizing
about career development occurred, resulting in eight new
theories of career choice and development, many of which are
still viable today. From 1970 to 1984, six additional theories of
career choice and development were advanced, three of which
focused largely on women’s career development. Another
intense period of theorizing began in 1991, and since 1991 five

5. new theories of career choice and development have been
presented. A chronological account of these events can be found
in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 A History of Career Development Theorizing
Year Event
1909 Parsons’s book, Choosing Your Vocation, is published
posthumously.
1951 Ginzberg and associates publish Occupational Choice: An
Approach to a General Theory, which outlines a developmental
theory of career development.
1953 Super publishes “A Theory of Vocational Development“ in
American Psychologist; his article outlines a second
developmental theory of career development.
1956 Roe publishes The Psychology of Occupations, which
contains her personality-based theory of career development.
1959 Holland publishes “A Theory of Vocational Choice“ in the
Journal of Counseling Psychology; his article sets forth some of
the propositions of his theory of vocational choice.
1963 Tiedeman and O’Hara publish Career Development: Choice
and Adjustment, which contains a theory rooted in the idea that
careers satisfy needs.
1963 Bordin and associates publish “An Articulated Framework
for Vocational Development” in the Journal of Counseling
Psychology; their article sets forth a psychodynamic framework
for career development.
1967 Blau and Duncan publish The American Occupational
Structure, which sets forth the premises of status attainment
theory, a sociological theory of career development.
1969 Lofquist and Dawis publish Adjustment to Work, which
outlines the premises of a trait-factor model of occupational
selection and adjustment.
1976 Krumboltz and associates publish “A Social Learning
Theory of Career Selection” in The Counseling Psychologist.
1981 Gottfredson publishes “Circumscription and Compromise:
A Developmental Theory of Occupational Aspirations“ in the

6. Journal of Counseling Psychology; her article focuses on how
sex-role identification limits occupational aspirations.
1981 Hackett and Betz publish “A Self-Efficacy Approach to the
Career-Development of Women“ in the Journal of Vocational
Behavior.
Module 2 Assignment
Students are expected to cover content from the text related to
the theory (minimally) and also integrate information from
beyond the text to supplement learning.
Refer to Ch. 3
John Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice.
Discuss relevant contributors to the career theory. Discuss
important concepts, terms, and themes related to the career
theory. Design and distribute a one-page handout of important
information from the career theory.
Present the career theory in a 20-30 minute presentation. Each
presentation should address the following:
· How applicable is the theory to our diverse society today? Do
all components of your theory apply to all segments of our
society (age, gender, ethnicity, S.E.S, religion, sexual
orientation, varying abilities, etc.)
· Is there criticism of this theory? If so, briefly summarize
· To what degree is the theory supported by research literature?
· What do you personally think of the theory? How relevant is it
to your own life? (Give an example of how it may, or may not,
apply to your own life)