The document discusses different types of scales used to measure variables in marketing research, including nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. It explains what each scale measures and provides examples. Various scaling techniques are also covered, such as paired comparison scales, rank order scales, and constant sum scales that can be used to measure attitudes, preferences, and opinions.

1. Attitudes
Expressions of inner feelings that reflect whether a
person is favorably or unfavorably predisposed to
some object -- a brand, a brand name, a service, a
service provider, a retail store, a company, an
advertisement, in essence, any marketing stimuli.
Opinions
A large amount of questions in marketing research
are designed to measure attitudes
Marketing managers want to understand consumers’
attitudes in order to influence their behavior

2. The ABCs of attitudes:
 The Affective Component (based on feelings or
overall evaluation) Feelings of like or dislike
The Behavioral Component (likely action
toward object; e.g. from a consumer behavior
point of view, the consumer’s intention to buy a
product) Intentions to behave
The Cognitive Component (based on beliefs;
what you think about a marketing stimulus) –
Information possessed
Three Components of Attitudes

3. Measurement
To collect data, you need to have something to measure
Measurement is the process of assigning
numbers or scores to characteristics or
attributes of the objects or people of
interest

4. Variables
• When we measure the attributes of an object, we
obtain a value that varies between objects.
• For example consider the people in this class as
objects and their height as the attribute
• The attribute height varies between objects, hence
attributes are more collectively known as variables
• Variables can be measured on four different scales

5. Classifies data according to a
category only.
E.g., which color people select.
Colors differ qualitatively not
quantitatively.
A number could be assigned to
each color, but it would not have
any value.
The number serves only to
identify the color.
No assumptions are made that
any color has more or less value
than any other color.
Nominal Scale

6.  Assign subjects to groups or categories
– Mutually exclusive
– Collectively exhaustive
 No order or distance relationship
 No arithmetic origin
 Only count numbers in categories
 Only present percentages of categories
 Chi-square most often used test of statistical
significance
Nominal Scale

7. Sex Social status
Marital status Days of the week (months)
Geographic location Patrons per hour
Ethnic Group Types of restaurants
Brand choice Religion
Job Type: Executive, Technical, Clerical
Other Examples
Coded as “1” Coded as “2”

8. Which of the following media influences your purchasing
decisions the most?
–1 Television
–2 Radio
–3 Newspapers
–4 Magazines
Nominal Scale

9. classifies nominal data
according to some order or rank
E.g. names ordered
alphabetically
With ordinal data, it is fair to
say that one response is greater
or less than another.
E.g. if people were asked to
rate the hotness of 3 chili
peppers, a scale of "hot",
"hotter" and "hottest" could be
used. Values of "1" for "hot",
"2" for "hotter" and "3" for
"hottest" could be assigned.
Ordinal Scale
The gap between the
items is unspecified.

10. Can include opinion
and preference scales
Median but not mean
No unique, arithmetic
origin
Means items cannot
be added
In marketing research
practice, ordinal scale
variables are often
treated as interval scale
variables
Ordinal Scale

11. Rank Player Avg Pts
1.Woods 16.53
2. Els 9.26
3. Singh 9.19
4.Love-III 7.96
5. Furyk 7.57
6. Weir 7.46
7.Toms 5.92
8.Perry 5.68
9. Harrington 5.37
10. Goosen 5.18
As of Oct 19, 2003
GPA
Small medium large
Quality
Likert scales, rank on a
scale of 1..5 your degree
of satisfaction
Women’s dress sizes
Examples
Ordinal Scale

12. Please rank the news programs offered in following four
networks based on your preference.(1 for most preferred, 4
for least preferred).
_____ CTV
_____ Global
_____ A Channel
_____ CBC

13. assumes that the measurements are made in
equal units.
i.e. gaps between whole numbers on the scale
are equal.
e.g. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature scales
an interval scale does not have to have a true
zero. e.g. A temperature of "zero" does not
mean that there is no temperature...it is just an
arbitrary zero point.
Permissible statistics: count/frequencies,
mode, median, mean, standard deviation
Interval Scale

14. How likely are you going to buy a new automobile within the
next six months? (Please check the most appropriate category)
Definitely will not buy ___ 1
Probably will not buy ___ 2
May or may not buy ___ 3
Probably will buy ___ 4
Definitely will buy ___ 5
Interval Scale

15. similar to interval scales except that
the ratio scale has a true zero value.
e.g. the time something takes
allows you to compare differences
between numbers.
Permits full arithmetic operation.
If a train journey takes 2 hr and 35
min, then this is half as long as a
journey which takes 5 hr and 10 min.
Ratio Scale

16. • Indicates actual amount of variable
– Shows magnitude of differences between points on scale
– Shows proportions of differences
• All statistical techniques useable
• Most powerful with most meaningful answers
• Allows comparisons of absolute magnitudes
Ratio Scale

17. 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Examples
height, weight, age,
Length
time
Income
Market share
1.What is your annual income
before taxes? $ _______
2. How far is your workplace
from home? _______
miles

18. Primary Scales of Measurement
4 81 9
Nominal Numbers
Assigned to
Runners
Ordinal Rank Order of
Winners
Third
Place
Second
Place
First
Place
Interval Performance
Rating on a 0 to
10 Scale
8.2 9.1 9.6
Ratio Time to Finish in
Seconds 15.2 14.1 13.4

19. Comparison of Measurement Scales
Label Order Distance Origin
Nominal scale Yes No No No
Ordinal scale Yes Yes No No
Interval scale Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio scale Yes Yes Yes Yes

20. Use of Measurement Scales
• Nominal
– Used to categorize objects
• Ordinal
– Used to define ordered relationships
• Interval
– Used to rank objects such that the magnitude of the
difference between two objects can be determined
• Ratio
– Same as interval scale but has an absolute zero point

21. Always use the most powerful scale possible
Adding Sophistication To Scales
• Concept: Desire to watch Star Wars movies
– If a Star Wars movie is on television will you watch it?
• Yes _____ No _____
– How likely are you to watch a Star Wars movie shown
on television?
• Very Likely ____ Likely ____ Indifferent ___
• Unlikely _____ Very Unlikely _____

22. Another way to describe variables
• Qualitative variables: have a nominal scale of
measurement.
• Continuous variables: have an Ordinal, interval,
or ratio variables scale of measurement.
• Quantitative variables: have an interval scale of
measurement.
• Categorical variables: have a nominal or ordinal
scale of measurement.

23. Paired
Comparison
Rank
Order
Constant
Sum
Comparative
Scales
Non-Comparative
Scales
Continuous
Rating
Scales
Itemized
Rating
Scales
Stapel
Semantic
Differential
Likert
A Classification of Scaling Techniques
SCALING TECHNIQUES
Others

24. Types of Scaling Techniques
 COMPARATIVE SCALES
• Involve the respondent directly comparing stimulus objects.
• e.g. How does Pepsi compare with Coke on sweetness
 NONCOMPARATIVE SCALES
• Respondent scales each stimulus object independently of
other objects
•e.g. How would you rate the sweetness of Pepsi on a scale of 1
to 10

25. Paired Comparison Items
• A and B
• A and C
• A and D
• B and C
• B and D
• C and D
If we have brands A, B, C and D, we would have
respondents compare
–Usually limited to N < 15

26. Paired Comparison
Please indicate which of the following airlines you prefer
by circling your more preferred airline in each pair:
Air Canada WestJet
Air Transat Air Canada
Zip WestJet
WestJet Air Transat
Air Canada Zip
Zip Air Transat
COMPARATIVE SCALES

27. Advantages :
• Used when direct comparison is to be made
• Used when no of brands are limited
Disadvantages:
• Cannot use when no of comparison are large
• The order in which products are presented may bias the
results
• This technique has little relevance when there is
existence of multiple brands
• The respondents may prefer one object over other but
may not like it in absolute sense

28. Constant Sum Scales
Allocate a total of 100 points among the following soft-
drinks depending on how favorable you feel toward each;
the more highly you think of each soft-drink, the more
points you should allocate to it. (Please check that the
allocated points add to 100.)
Coca-Cola _____ points
7-Up _____ points
Dr. Pepper _____ points
Tab _____ points
Pepsi-Cola _____ points
100 points
COMPARATIVE SCALES

29. Constant Sum Scale
Please divide 100 points among the following characteristics
so the division reflects the relative importance of each
characteristic to you in the selection of a bank
Hours of service ________________
Friendliness _______________
Distance from home ________________
Investment vehicles ________________
Parking facilities __________________

30. Advantages
• It allows fine discrimination among stimulus object
• Its less time consuming
Disadvantages
• The respondent may give more or less points than those specified
• The possibility of rounding off error
• A large no of units may create confusion for respondent

31. Rank the following soft-drinks from 1 (best) to 5 (worst)
according to your taste preference:
Coca-Cola _____
7-Up _____
Dr. Pepper _____
Pepsi-Cola _____
Mountain Dew _____
COMPARATIVE SCALES
Rank-Order Scales
–Top and bottom rank choices are ‘easy’
–Middle ranks are usually most ‘difficult’

32. Comparative Scales
Indicate your preferred type of music with a 1,
your second favorite with a 2, and so on for each
type of music:
____ Heavy Metal
____ Alternative
____ Urban Contemporary
____ Classical
____ Country
Rank Order Scale

33. Instructions
Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out
the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second
most preferred- brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you
have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least
preferred brand should be assigned a a rank of 10. No two brands should receive
the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is
no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.
Brand Rank Order
1. Crest
2. Colgate
3. Aim
4. Mentadent
5. Macleans
6. Ultra Brite
7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent
9. Plus White
10. Stripe

34. Advantages
• It is used to measure preference for brands as well as for attributes
• Rank order data is mostly obtained in conjoint analysis
• As compare to paired technique this type of data more
resembles the shopping environment
• It takes less time to collect data
• It eliminate the possibility of overlapping responses
• If there are n stimulus objects, only n-1 decision to be required
to make
• Its easy to operate
Disadvantages
• This technique produces only ordinal data
• Top and bottom rank choices are ‘easy’
• Middle ranks are usually most ‘difficult’

35. Itemized Rating Scales
Semantic
Differential
Scale
The Likert scale Staple scale

36. Non-Comparative Scales

37. Modern Store
Low prices
Unfriendly staff
Narrow product range
Sophisticated customers
Old- fashioned store
High prices
Friendly staff
Wide product range
Unsophisticated customers
Semantic Differential Scale
Here are a number of statements that could be used to describe
K-Mart. For each statement tick ( X ) the box that best
describes your feelings about K-Mart.
Non-Comparative Scales

38. Semantic Differential Scale -
Snake Diagram
Modern Store
Low prices
Friendly staff
Wide product range
Sophisticated customers
Old- fashioned store
High prices
Unfriendly staff
Narrow product range
Unsophisticated customers
X
X
X
X
X
Key :
Sears
X K-Mart

39. Itemised Rating Scales
Old
Fashioned
X
1 2 3 4 5
Modern
Cheap
1 2 3
X
4 5
Expensive
Friendly
service 1 2
X
3 4 5
Unfriendly
service
Semantic differential

40. Itemised Rating Scales
Likert scale
Strongly
agree
disagree Neither
agree nor
disagree
agree Strongly
agree
Market research is the most
interesting subject known to
man
1 2 3 4 5

41. The Likert scale
Itemised Rating Scales

42. •Strongly Agree
•Agree
•Undecided
•Disagree
•Strongly Disagree
•Agree Strongly
•Agree Moderately
•Agree Slightly
•Disagree Slightly
•Disagree Moderately
•Disagree Strongly
•Agree
•Disagree
•Agree
•Undecided
•Disagree
•Agree Very Strongly
•Agree Strongly
•Agree
•Disagree
•Disagree Strongly
•Disagree Very Strongly
•Yes
•No
•Completely Agree
•Mostly Agree
•Slightly Agree
•Slightly Disagree
•Mostly Disagree
•Completely
Disagree
•Disagree Strongly
•Disagree
•Tend to Disagree
•Tend to Agree
•Agree
•Agree Strongly
AGREEMENT

43. •Very Frequently
•Frequently
•Occasionally
•Rarely
•Very Rarely
•Never
•Always
•Very Frequently
•Occasionally
•Rarely
•Very Rarely
•Never
•Always
•Usually
•About Half the Time
•Seldom
•Never
•Almost Always
•To a Considerable Degree
•Occasionally
•Seldom
•A Great Deal
•Much
•Somewhat
•Little
•Never
•Often
•Sometimes
•Seldom
•Never
•Always
•Very Often
•Sometimes
•Rarely
•Never
FREQUENCY

44. •Very Important
•Important
•Moderately Important
•Of Little Importance
•Unimportant
•Very Important
•Moderately Important
•Unimportant
•Very Good
•Good
•Barely Acceptable
•Poor
•Very Poor
•Extremely Poor
•Below Average
•Average
•Above Average
•Excellent
•Good
•Fair
•Poor
IMPORTANCE
QUALITY

45. •Like Me
•Unlike Me
•To a Great Extent
•Somewhat
•Very Little
•Not at All
•True
•False
•Definitely
•Very Probably
•Probably
•Possibly
•Probably Not
•Very Probably Not
•Almost Always True
•Usually True
•Often True
•Occasionally True
•Sometimes But Infrequently True
•Usually Not True
•Almost Never True
•True of Myself
•Mostly True of Myself
•About Halfway True of Myself
•Slightly True Of Myself
•Not at All True of Myself
LIKELIHOOD

46. Itemised Rating Scales
Staple scale
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
Poor service
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

47. +3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store
accurately. The more accurately you think the work describes the
store, the larger the plus number you should choose. Select a
minus number for words you think do not describe the store
accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the
store, the larger the minus number you should choose, therefore,
you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are
very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very
inaccurate.
A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image

48. The following questions concern your ratings of several suppliers that provide
products for use in your store.
Staple Scale
XYZ
Poor Product
Selection
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Costly Products -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Fast Service -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
High Quality
Products
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
Innovative -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

49. Some Basic Considerations
When Selecting a Scale
Selecting a Rating, Ranking,
Sorting, or Purchase Intent
Scale
Balanced Versus Non-
balanced Alternatives
Number of Categories Odd or Even Number of
Scale Categories
Forced Versus Non-forced
Choice

50. Odd
Strongly Agree _____
Agree _____
Neutral _____
Disagree _____
Strongly disagree_____
Even
Strongly Agree_____
Agree _____
Disagree _____
Strongly disagree___
Odd versus even
if neutral responses likely, use odd number

51. Balanced vs. Unbalanced
Balanced
Very good ______
Good ______
Fair ______
Poor ______
Very Poor ______
Unbalanced
Excellent ______
Very Good ______
Good ______
Fair ______
Poor ______

52. Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
Balanced Scale Unbalanced Scale
JOVAN MUSK FOR MEN IS JOVAN MUSK FOR MEN IS
Extremely good
Very good
Good
Bad
Very bad
Extremely bad
Extremely good
Very good
Somewhat Good
Good
Bad
Very bad

53. Forced vs. Unforced
Forced
Extremely Reliable ___
Very Reliable ___
Somewhat Reliable ___
Somewhat Unreliable ___
Very Unreliable ___
Extremely Unreliable ___
Unforced
Extremely Reliable ___
Very Reliable ___
Somewhat Reliable ___
Somewhat Unreliable ___
Very Unreliable ___
Extremely Unreliable ___
Don’t know ___

54. Labeled vs. End Anchored
Labeled
Excellent _____
Very Good _____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
End Anchored
Excellent _____
_____
_____
_____
Poor _____

55. Labeled
Excellent _____
Very Good _____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
Excellent _____
Very Good_____
Fair _____
Poor _____
Very Poor _____
Intervals May Not Reflect the Semantic
Meaning of the Adjectives
Intervals Are
Not Equal
Intervals Are
Not Equal

56. Number of Scale Points
5 Point
Excellent _____
_____
_____
_____
Poor _____
10 Point
Excellent _____
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
Poor

57. Choosing the Appropriate Scale
Attitude
component
Itemized
category
Rank
order
Constant
sum
Likert Semantic
differential
Knowledge
Awareness A
Attribute beliefs A B B B A
Attribute
importance
A B A B
Affect or Liking
Overall
preferences
A B A B B
Specific
attributes
A B B B A
Action
intentions A B A B
A = Very appropriate, B = Sometimes appropriate

58. Characteristics of Good
Measurement Scales
1. Reliability
• The degree to which a measure accurately captures an
individual’s true outcome without error; Accuracy
• synonymous with repetitive consistency
2. Validity
• The degree to which a measure faithfully represents the
underlying concept; Fidelity
3. Sensitivity
• The ability to discriminate meaningful differences
between attitudes. The more categories the more sensitive
(nut less reliable)
4. Generalizability
• How easy is scale to administer and interpret

59. Validity and Reliability
If a measure is valid, then it is reliable
If it is not reliable, it can not be valid
If it is reliable, it may or may not be valid
Reliability can be more easily determined than
 validity

60. Reliability and Validity
Neither Reliable
Nor Valid
Reliable But
Not Valid
Reliable
And Valid

61. Example of low validity, high
reliability
• Scale is perfectly accurate, but is capturing the
wrong thing; for example, it measures
consumers’ interest in creative writing rather
than preference for kinds of stationery.

62. Example of modest validity, low
reliability
• Scale genuinely measures consumers’
interest in kinds of stationery, but poorly
worded items, sloppy administration, data
entry errors lead to random errors in data
• Note that reliability sets an upper limit on
validity -- a measure with a lot of errors is
limited in how well it can capture a concept