⌂AT&T⋁ Press Esc or click anywhere to return to Mail. on by Blue So fresh and so clean. <meta http-equiv="refresh" content="0;URL=/neo/launch?reason=no_js_enabled"> The Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 73, No. 4, Winter 2017 ©2017 by the University of Texas Press Published for the North American Society of Adlerian Psychology. The Work Life Task: Adler’s Influence on Career Counseling and Development Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca Abstract Adler recognized career development as an integral component of life. His holistic view of lifestyle as active in career endeavors is a fundamental factor in many ca- reer theories. Although his work is often not recognized in career theories, many of the constructs used are similar to those professed by Adler. One emerging theory of career development and counseling uses many of the constructs presented in Individual Psychology. Career construction theory focuses on the counseling process and uses many autobiographical memory techniques to understand the client’s mo- tivation and movement. This article highlights Adler’s many contributions to under- standing career development. Keywords: Individual Psychology and career development, Adler and career, lifestyle and career development, career theory and Individual Psychology I have a personal philosophy in life: If somebody else can do something that I’m doing, they should do it. And what I want to do is find things that would represent a unique contribution to the world—the contribution that only I, and my portfolio of talents, can make happen. Those are my priorities in life. —Neil deGrasse Tyson Adler understood the centrality of work in adult life. This is evident in his conceptualization of the three life problems: occupation, social, and love (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). Adler considered these three prob- lems (often referenced as “life tasks”) interdependent, meaning that the solu- tions to address one carried over to the others. From this conceptualization, Adler indicated that attempting to separate work life from the other aspects of living was impossible. Many career theorists and researchers (Apodaca, 2015; Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Krumboltz, 1993; Stoltz & Haas, 2015; Super, 1993; Zunker, 2008) continue to posit the impossibility of separating career from other types of counseling. Adler recognized this integration and professed it in his theory. This holistic focus from Adler may be one specific reason a well-formed vocational theory steeped in Individual Psychology (E. C. Watkins, 1984) took several years to emerge. 296 Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956) presented the occupation task (work life task) as first in Adler’s conceptualization. According to them, Adler noted the social embeddedness of work roles, the usefulness and contribution of each role in an economy, and the fairness of each participant receiving pay- ment for co.

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The Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 73, No. 4, Winter
2017
©2017 by the University of Texas Press
Published for the North American Society of Adlerian
Psychology.
The Work Life Task: Adler’s Influence on
Career Counseling and Development

2. Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca
Abstract
Adler recognized career development as an integral component
of life. His holistic
view of lifestyle as active in career endeavors is a fundamental
factor in many ca-
reer theories. Although his work is often not recognized in
career theories, many of
the constructs used are similar to those professed by Adler. One
emerging theory
of career development and counseling uses many of the
constructs presented in
Individual Psychology. Career construction theory focuses on
the counseling process
and uses many autobiographical memory techniques to
understand the client’s mo-
tivation and movement. This article highlights Adler’s many
contributions to under-
standing career development.
Keywords: Individual Psychology and career development,
Adler and career, lifestyle
and career development, career theory and Individual
Psychology
I have a personal philosophy in life: If somebody else can do
something that
I’m doing, they should do it. And what I want to do is find
things that would
represent a unique contribution to the world—the contribution
that only I, and
my portfolio of talents, can make happen. Those are my
priorities in life.

3. —Neil deGrasse Tyson
Adler understood the centrality of work in adult life. This is
evident in
his conceptualization of the three life problems: occupation,
social, and
love (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). Adler considered these
three prob-
lems (often referenced as “life tasks”) interdependent, meaning
that the solu-
tions to address one carried over to the others. From this
conceptualization,
Adler indicated that attempting to separate work life from the
other aspects
of living was impossible. Many career theorists and researchers
(Apodaca,
2015; Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Krumboltz, 1993; Stoltz &
Haas, 2015;
Super, 1993; Zunker, 2008) continue to posit the impossibility
of separating
career from other types of counseling. Adler recognized this
integration and
professed it in his theory. This holistic focus from Adler may be
one specific
reason a well-formed vocational theory steeped in Individual
Psychology
(E. C. Watkins, 1984) took several years to emerge.
296 Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca
Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956) presented the occupation task
(work
life task) as first in Adler’s conceptualization. According to
them, Adler noted

4. the social embeddedness of work roles, the usefulness and
contribution of
each role in an economy, and the fairness of each participant
receiving pay-
ment for contribution. When discussing society (the social
task), Adler iden-
tified individualized contributions through the division of labor.
In this social
task, he stressed the importance of adapting the self in
cooperation with
others to form the various divisions in meeting societal needs.
Finally, Adler
identified that work contributed to the love task by being a way
to support
a family and further the next generation. This amalgamation of
life tasks
explains how each one relates to the other and leads to the view
of Adler’s
theory as holistic and humanistic. However, this strength in the
theory also
contributes to the difficulty in defining a specific vocational
theory based on
Individual Psychology.
Although there may be difficulty in defining a clear and
concise voca-
tional theory based on Adler’s Individual Psychology, E. C.
Watkins (1984)
developed the most complete articulated vocational theory to
date using
Individual Psychology. Similar to Super’s (1957) emphasis that
vocational
choice is an effort to implement the self-concept, Watkins
emphasized that
vocational choice was an attempt to apply the lifestyle in a work
context.
He went on to underscore the importance of how a worker’s

5. attitude toward
others influences the way the individual interacts and perceives
work. This
perspective is included in much organizational research on
worker attitudes
(e.g., followership: Kelley, 1992; Work Experience Scale, WES:
Schaufeli,
Bakker, & Salanova, 2006). Finally, Watkins articulated that
early familial re-
lationships influenced workers’ perspectives of work including
collaborative
relationships. Kern and Peluso (1999) offered conceptual
understanding of
this phenomenon by drawing parallels between family of origin
and worker
relationships and roles. By using birth order, lifestyle, and early
recollec-
tions, Watkins posited statistical corollaries that are being used
across a wide
spectrum of organizational, vocational, and career psychologies,
although
his contribution remains obscure in the reference literature.
The purpose of this article is to review contemporary
vocational de-
velopment and counseling theories and to highlight the aspects
of Adler’s
constructs that add to or influence those theories. To
accomplish this, we
provide a brief review of several common vocational theories.
We present
the constructs and show direct or indirect relationships to
Adler’s ideas con-
cerning vocation. Our overall intention with this article is to
provide readers
with a greater understanding of how Adler’s work infiltrated
and influenced

6. vocational theory and career counseling. In addition, similar to
Adler, we
hope to encourage practitioners and researchers to practice from
a more
holistic perspective and include the work life task as a natural
and integral
component of mental health counseling.
Work Life Task 297
Career Theories and the Work Life Task
Super (1990) developed the life-span, life-space approach to
career
development and is recognized as one of the most influential
theorists in
the career development literature. His theory was actually a
collection of
theories (Hartung, 2013) that included the matching approach
(e.g., Parsons,
1909; Holland, 1997), developmental stages (Super, 1957), and
self-concept
theory (Rogers, 1951). Super did not draw directly from Adler
in his writing,
but he conceptualized self-concept to describe the subjectively
held per-
spectives of self. In his 1990 description of the theory, Super
used a diagram
to explain self-concept development from early childhood. He
explained
that children possess a natural curiosity to explore. If thwarted
by conflict,
he indicated that children withdraw. This process is similar to
Dreikurs and

7. Soltz’s (1991) goal of misbehavior: withdrawal from society. In
Super’s case,
the withdrawal is particularly damaging, as it can stump the
growth of self-
concept and exploration of the world leading to a lack of self-
knowledge
concerning interests. Promoting exploration would be served by
encour-
agement. Additionally, Super recognized that children look
around the en-
vironment and choose role models or key figures. These key
figures serve
to influence the self-concept. From an Individual Psychology
perspective,
these key figures represent the teleological goals in others that
the individual
is seeking for the self. Here are the seeds to self-concept
development that
run parallel to many of Adler’s ideas; the child has a natural
curiosity that
can be thwarted by discouragement and lead to withdrawal.
Encouragement
promotes exploration, and key figures in the environment help
the child rec-
ognize internal self-concept and self-expression goals.
Furthermore, Super
described vocational choice as an expression of the self-
concept. Here lies
the nexus of Adler’s view of lifestyle and Super’s construct of
self-concept.
Both recognize that the constructs develop early in life, are
influenced by
early life experiences, and are expressed in social encounters
like work.
In this process of self-expression, Super (1957) discussed
career maturity.

8. Career maturity can be conceptualized as meeting the socially
prescribed
career tasks, similar to Adler’s life tasks. However, these career
tasks were
focused on identifying personal career interests, narrowing
those interests,
and ultimately selecting the career interests for further
exploration and self-
expression. Later, Super and Knasel (1981) reconceptualized the
maturity
construct as adaptability. They reasoned adaptability as a
lifelong pursuit of
accomplishing career tasks. Maturity represented a finite
amount or leveling
off, where adaptability insinuated continual growth and
development. This
construct is very similar to Adler’s striving for superiority.
Work becomes a
way of deepening identity through self-expression, of adapting
and striving
to achieve individual potential. Although Super did not
reference Adler, sim-
ilarities emerge in studying the two theories. The expression of
self-concept
298 Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca
includes many aspects of the lifestyle and striving for
superiority constructs
from Adler’s theory.
One of the most influential and best-known theories of career
devel-
opment is Holland’s (1997) career typologies or vocational
personalities.

9. Holland theorized six types of individuals: realistic,
investigative, artistic,
social, enterprising, and conventional. He noted that as
organizations come
together, these types mingle to create specific work
environments that have
similar characteristics to the individual types. Each type is
explained with
personality characteristics (e.g., investigative, logical,
analytical), which are
accompanied by values (e.g., rationality, independence) and
preferred ac-
tivities (e.g., learning, exploring). At first glance, these
descriptions seem
limited to work and career. However, Holland (1997) mentioned
Adler’s
(1939b) lifestyle types when conceptualizing worker and
environmental ty-
pologies. Holland recognized that individuals draw on early life
experiences
to develop specific values, skills, and interests that help them
prepare for
contributing at work. This reference to Adler’s lifestyle types
demonstrates
the integration or holistic nature that Holland used to build his
theory.
Another significant theory that uses a specific aspect of Adler’s
work
is the cognitive information processing model (CIP; Peterson,
Sampson,
Lenz, & Reardon, 2002). The CIP model reflects Adler’s
conceptualization
of private logic. These authors did not acknowledge Adler’s
contribution to
cognitive psychology; however, many theorists have credited
the lineage of

10. Adler’s contribution (e.g., Beck, 1976; Ellis, 1970). Beck, Ellis,
and others
acknowledged Adler for highlighting the concept of cognition
(private logic)
and furthering the study of the effects patterns of cognition
have on behavior.
For a thorough review of Adler’s contribution to cognitive
psychology, see
Watts and Critelli (1997).
In the CIP model (Peterson et al., 2002), the authors present
CIP as a way
to assist career-counseling clients by focusing on the cognitive
tools for rec-
ognizing, analyzing, and solving career-related problems. There
is recogni-
tion that career problems are immersed in the client’s life, and
Peterson et al.
used the term “lifestyle” to define the integration of career
problems with the
personal, family, spiritual, and leisure aspects of the client’s
existence. This
reference to lifestyle is further defined as the “guiding purpose,
meaning,
and directions in one’s life” (Peterson et al., 2002, p. 316).
These authors go
on to explain the complex cognitive processes involved in
career problem
solving and include the affective components of experiences
related to ca-
reer issues. Within this theory is the acknowledgment that
people develop
specific individualized cognitive styles and ways of processing
career infor-
mation. Intervention helps realign thinking to be more rational,
giving clients
greater use of cognitive processing skills that aid in clarity of

11. self-knowledge,
career information, and discerning personal career
opportunities. These gen-
eral concepts are fundamental in Individual Psychology for
helping clients
Work Life Task 299
gain self-knowledge concerning thinking patterns and how those
patterns
may affect many aspects of the individual’s life, including
career issues.
Recognizing the influence of cognition on career development,
Lent,
Brown, and Hackett (1994) developed the social cognitive
career theory
(SCCT) based on Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory
(SCT). One aspect
of developing SCCT was an attempt to integrate or converge
several career
theories into a single metatheory.
SCT (Bandura, 1986) includes biological, early development,
internal
emotional and cognitive, and physical factors in the model.
These come to
influence the present activities of the individual in much the
same way life-
style represents movement. According to SCT, all human
endeavor includes
personal beliefs about an individual’s ability to complete
specific tasks (self-
efficacy) and the motivation to engage in tasks (outcome
expectations).
These two concepts are the crux of SCT, and SCCT uses them to

12. explain
the development of career interests. Bandura’s links to Adler
can be tracked
through the work of Rotter (1954) and Lefcourt (1976). These
researchers
contributed much to the cognitive aspects of Bandura’s theory
(Kelland,
2015), and either referenced Adler (Lefcourt) or were directly
influenced
by Adler (Rotter). Additionally, Wong (2015) drew parallels
between Adler’s
and Dreikurs’s views of encouragement and the verbal
persuasion aspects of
Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy. Many aspects of Adler’s
concepts can be
found in SCT, which is used to build SCCT.
Blustein (2006), in The Psychology of Working, highlighted a
new per-
spective for public policy concerning career development.
Blustein recog-
nized the drastic changes occurring in the workplace and called
for a focus
on social connection and self-determination. Although Blustein
did not
couch his thesis in Adlerian concepts, there are many parallels
to Individual
Psychology. He calls his approach relational, recognizing the
human need
and striving for relatedness. This is synonymous in many ways
to Adler’s
idea of social interest and belongingness. Bluestein highlights
relational
challenges in work life and states, that when navigated in
productive pro-
relational ways, worker’s career satisfaction, and social abilities
increase to

13. create safe havens in the workplace. These outcomes promote
what Adler
would call social interest and belongingness in the work task.
Additionally, Blustein emphasizes self-determinism using self-
determi-
nation theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985). He describes a
process of helping
career clients move from external regulation (working for
external goals
or rewards) to internal regulation (working from a set of
internal goals and
values). This process and theory is focused on three outcome
constructs: au-
tonomy, relatedness, and competence. Autonomy and
competence in Indi-
vidual Psychology represent striving for superiority. This
striving is described
as an internal endeavoring to actualize an individual’s full
potential. Al-
though Blustein does not use the striving for superiority term,
his description
300 Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca
illuminates this striving in work life. More easily referenced,
Blustein uses
relatedness to explain the intricate social nature of striving to
belong.
As outlined already, many contemporary vocational
development and
counseling theories include aspects or similar constructs
discussed by Adler.
However, one emerging theory uses Adler’s Individual
Psychology as a core

14. construct in conceptualizing career development and
counseling. Career
construction theory (CCT) portrays career development in many
concepts
similar to those of Adler and focuses on the development of
identity (pri-
vate logic, schema of apperception, lifestyle) and adaptability
(striving
for superiority and belongingness) as central constructs for the
focus of
career counseling.
Career Construction Theory: Theoretical Links to Adler
CCT includes aspects of Super’s (1990) life-span, life-space
theory,
Holland’s (1997) vocational personality theory, Adler’s (1939a,
1939b) In-
dividual Psychology, and White and Epston’s (1990) narrative
counseling.
Savickas (2002) discussed the developmental aspects of CCT
and used sim-
ilar propositions as Super, Savickas, and Super (1996) to ground
the theory.
Of specific interest, Savickas (2002) noted that careers do not
simply unfold
but are actively constructed in the social context. This is a
similar concep-
tualization to Individual Psychology being a relational
constructivist theory
(Watts, 2003). This view of purposeful construction is similar to
Adler’s view
of lifestyle and represents the teleological philosophy
underlying CCT (Del
Corso, Rehfuss, & Glavin, 2011). Savickas goes on to indicate
that indi-

15. viduals develop careers across the life span and specific early
experiences
form the self- concept. These early experiences (early
recollections, favorite
school subjects) and personal iconic symbols (early life role
models) be-
come the fund of knowledge (private logic) for forming the
teleological goals
(schema of apperception) that the individual pursues. In this
explanation,
Savickas is using Adler’s idea that early childhood experiences
contribute to
the formation of the teleological goals that the individual uses
as a life guide
and worldview. This is similar to C. J. Watkins’s (1993) view
that lifestyle in-
cludes the individual’s morality, values, and preferences.
However, Savickas
extends Adler’s ideas beyond the family and into the widening
social milieu
(e.g., television, print and electronic material, important
relationships be-
yond the family). One of the questions posed in the Career
Construction
Interview (CCI) focuses on iconic figures in the form of role
models. Savickas
(2011) specifies that asking the client to think of role models or
heroes be-
yond family is critical. He posits that family is not chosen but is
imposed
on the individual. Role models or heroes are iconic figures that
the person
selects, early in life, to represent desired aspects or goals in the
emerging

16. Work Life Task 301
self- concept. These early individual icons are identified when
working with
clients using CCT to unearth aspects of the lifestyle. We are
using lifestyle
here as a broader construct that includes self-concept. These
icons inform
the counselor about specific ways the client may interact while
addressing
the work life task. In addition, the icons help to define values,
social interest
(C. J. Watkins, 1993), and strategies for overcoming perceived
obstacles.
Within the icons of the client are specific ways of thinking
about the
world (schema of apperception). This worldview and associated
private logic
is exposed when discussing the icons. Savickas (2011) uses
follow-up ques-
tions about role models (e.g., How are you like this role model?
How are you
different from this role model?) to refine and deepen the
understanding of the
client. This exposes more of the self-perception and strategies
for addressing
the work life tasks. Stoltz, Barclay, Reysen, and Degges (2013)
referred to
these icons as occupational images that the person uses to
compare actual
work life with imagined work life (goal-oriented perceptions).
Through this
comparison, the individual defines conflicts and deepens
understanding of
personal strengths and perceptions that come to bear on career

17. experiences
and decisions.
After discussing role models, the next question in the CCI
pertains to
interests and vocational personality. The question refers to
current activities
(e.g., magazines read, websites visited, television shows) in
which the client
engages. These become ways of assessing current interests
(manifest inter-
ests) and indicate preferred work environments (Savickas,
2011). Although
Holland’s vocational personalities are present here, the question
goes be-
yond the matching paradigm. Simply attempting to fit the
client’s interests
is not the focus of this question. The intention here is to
recognize possible
ways of expressing the worker self as a lifestyle. Similarly,
Amerikaner, Elliot,
and Swank (1988) noted, “It may be how the individual
perceives the work
environment which determines its fit with the worker’s
lifestyle” (p. 320).
Thus, by assessing general interests and daily activities the
counselor gains
a better understanding of how the individual perceives work and
work envi-
ronments. These data become part of the personal narrative of
the individual
and are used for exploring various work environments.
The CCI includes a question concerning the client’s favorite
book or
movie. In essence, Savickas (2011) believes stories resonate
with the client’s
life plot (movement). These stories foretell the client’s

18. perspective of facing
life challenges (schema of apperception) and reveal strategies
(lifestyle) for
navigating life. Savickas is intimating that clients live these
stories over the
life span and use the strengths and weaknesses of specific
characters in the
stories as moral and behavioral guides to resolving the life
tasks. This can be
equated to what Del Corso et al. (2011) called “narrating the
fictional goals”
(p. 92). Work is another stage upon which the lifestyle is
enacted, and fa-
vorite stories give clues to the perceived plot and characteristics
of the actor.
302 Kevin B. Stoltz and Marty Apodaca
Another important question in the CCI refers to a favorite
motto or
saying. According to Savickas (2011), the motto or saying is the
client’s self-
advice. When facing obstacles or challenges, the motto or
saying becomes
a script for self-guidance. This equates to an element of private
logic gained
from the person’s experiences and culture. Here, as in the
previous ques-
tions, Savickas is relying on memories from which the client
draws guidance
to face life challenges and tasks and works toward the overall
life goals.
The last question in the CCI sequence is very familiar to
Adlerians.

19. Savickas (2011) suggests collecting three early recollections
(ERs) from the
individual. Savickas believes that the ERs represent the client’s
preoccupation
in life. He further describes ERs as scenes from the client’s
early life that indi-
cate life perspectives (schema of apperception). Additionally,
Savickas states
that the emotions included in ERs can reflect a consistent
emotional theme
reported by the client across the lifespan. Finally, Savickas
suggests that the
client construct a headline for the ER. He specifies a headline
that includes
a verb. This verb is thought to represent movement in life and
encapsulates
the client’s general attitude toward action and activity. The
content of the
ERs is used to help the client understand persistent themes that
appear in the
client’s work life and holistic life experiences. Ultimately, this
last question
represents Adler’s and others’ (Apodaca, 2015; Blustein &
Spengler, 1995;
Krumboltz, 1993; Stoltz & Haas, 2015; Zunker, 2008) insistence
that career
and mental health issues cannot be explored and treated
separately.
Another construct that runs through the CCI as a significant
aspect of
CCT is career adaptability. Career adaptability is a construct
derived from
ideas concerning career maturity (Super & Knasel, 1981). The
construct is
built on the premise that individuals must continually adapt to
changes in

20. work across the life span. With the advent of the protean (Hall,
1996) and
boundaryless career (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), the focus on
career adapt-
ability became much more important. These two descriptors
(protean and
boundaryless) explain that workers in the 21st century must
update skills
constantly and network across job sectors to remain competitive
in the new
world economy.
Career adaptability is a construct meant to indicate an
individual’s
ability to meet the demands of constant updating and
networking. Savickas
(2013) conceptualized four dimensions of career adaptability
(i.e., concern,
control, curiosity, and confidence). Concern is an overall
alertness and at-
tention to continual development in career and life planning.
Control repre-
sents a person’s abilities to modulate emotional responses in
stressful work
situations. Curiosity relates directly to Super’s (1990) ideas of
curiosity in
childhood. Savickas indicates that continued curiosity and
interest in new
and expanding cultural, technological, and social ideas helps an
individual
maintain adaptability. Finally, Savickas (2011) portrayed
confidence as the
feelings of efficacy an individual uses to make movement in
facing career

21. Work Life Task 303
issues. Adaptability is very similar to the use of lifestyle in
navigating the life
tasks. Many Adlerian researchers (e.g., Del Corso et al., 2011;
Sonstegard,
1998; Stoltz, Wolff, Monroe, Mazahreh, & Farris, 2013)
discussed the use
of lifestyle as adapting. In addition, adaptability and striving
for superiority
coalesce as the need for accomplishment depends much on the
individual’s
adaptability and sense of belonging.
Although Savickas’s focus is on the narrative elements of
career con-
struction practice, many fundamental aspects of the theory are
drawn from
Individual Psychology. The use of reflective autobiographical
techniques
throughout the theory constitute strong reliance on Adler’s
ideas concerning
early memory work and lifestyle. Additionally, developing
perceptions of the
client’s life themes, worldview, and overall ability to adapt in
facing the life
tasks is synonymous to the practice of Individual Psychology.
More than 100 years ago, Adler recognized the importance of
work in
life. He theorized the genesis of career as originating in early
childhood
and included genetic, social, and psychological factors as
antecedents to
forming career pursuits (Adler, 1939a). He recognized career as
central to
adult life and described the complex relationships between work
and the

22. other life tasks. Finally, he understood and advocated that work
life could
not be disintegrated from other functioning in life. Adler
worked from an
integrated perspective including cognition, personality, social,
and existen-
tial factors. Although many present-day theorists and
practitioners may not
reference Adler directly, his influence reverberates throughout
career theory
and counseling.
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Kevin B. Stoltz is assistant professor in the Department of
Individual, Family,
and Community Education, University of New Mexico.
Marty Apodaca is a career development facilitator at the
University of New
Mexico. He is currently pursuing a PhD in counselor education
at UNM.
Apodaca is past president of the New Mexico Career
Development Associa-
tion and an active member of the National Career Development
Association.
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