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Lapse rate and stability conditions
- Lapse rate is the decrease of air temperature with increasing elevation in the troposphere. It is influenced by factors like dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR), and environmental lapse rate (ELR).
- The stability of the atmosphere depends on the relationship between the ELR and the DALR/WALR. If ELR > DALR, the atmosphere is unstable. If ELR < DALR, the atmosphere is stable. If ELR = DALR, the atmosphere is neutral.
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Temperature lapse rates
The environmental lapse rate - temperature drop with altitude - in the troposphere; that is the temperature of the environment at different altitudes.
Inversion Of Temprature
Temperature inversions occur when the normal atmospheric pattern of decreasing temperature with increasing altitude is reversed, so that temperature increases with height. There are several types of inversions including surface-based, subsidence, and frontal inversions. Surface inversions form near the ground due to radiational cooling at night or when warm air moves over a cooler surface. Subsidence inversions occur when descending air warms due to compression. Frontal inversions form at boundaries between differing air masses. Inversions can lead to severe weather like freezing rain or intense thunderstorms and trap pollutants causing smog.
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Lapse rate and stability conditions
- Lapse rate is the decrease of air temperature with increasing elevation in the troposphere. It is influenced by factors like dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR), wet adiabatic lapse rate (WALR), and environmental lapse rate (ELR).
- The stability of the atmosphere depends on the relationship between the ELR and the DALR/WALR. If ELR > DALR, the atmosphere is unstable. If ELR < DALR, the atmosphere is stable. If ELR = DALR, the atmosphere is neutral.
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The environmental lapse rate - temperature drop with altitude - in the troposphere; that is the temperature of the environment at different altitudes.
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Temperature inversions occur when the normal atmospheric pattern of decreasing temperature with increasing altitude is reversed, so that temperature increases with height. There are several types of inversions including surface-based, subsidence, and frontal inversions. Surface inversions form near the ground due to radiational cooling at night or when warm air moves over a cooler surface. Subsidence inversions occur when descending air warms due to compression. Frontal inversions form at boundaries between differing air masses. Inversions can lead to severe weather like freezing rain or intense thunderstorms and trap pollutants causing smog.
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3. Other factors like wind, pressure systems, temperature inversions, moisture, and maximum mixing depth also impact pollutant plume behavior and dispersion.
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2. The health impacts of aerosols, as they are a major component of smog. Epidemiological studies have shown correlations between elevated aerosol levels and increased mortality, hospital visits, and excess infant mortality.
3. The effects of black carbon aerosols specifically. Black carbon warms the atmosphere through absorption of sunlight and contributes to melting of snow and ice when deposited on their surfaces. It may be responsible for up to 40
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Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy. The amount of energy captured depends on factors like air density, rotor area, and wind speed. Modern wind turbines are typically three-bladed with rotor diameters of 43-44 meters. Larger turbines are more efficient but require stronger winds to operate, while smaller turbines are suitable for areas with lower electrical demand or wind speeds. Proper turbine design is important to maximize energy extraction without severely disrupting airflow. Wind power has advantages of being renewable and generating no pollution.
Hydraulic turbines
Hydraulic turbines require a minimum head of water to operate and have several advantages including simple construction, easy controllability, and efficiency. They are classified based on the action of water on moving blades, direction of water flow, position of the shaft, head of water, speed, and specific speed. Impulse turbines have wheel passages not completely filled with water and water acts on buckets at atmospheric pressure, while reaction turbines have fully filled water passages and water acts under greater than atmospheric pressure all around the wheel periphery.
Engine
The document describes the main parts of an engine, including the piston, piston cylinder, inlet and outlet valves, water pump, oil pump, oil chamber, clutch plate, crank shaft, cam shaft, and gears. It explains that the piston transfers force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crank shaft via the connecting rod. The crank shaft converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotation. The cam shaft operates the valves according to the timing of combustion. Various gears including spur gears, helical gears, and bevel gears are used within the engine.
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