Performance assessments measure students' skills through authentic tasks that require applying knowledge, such as activities, exercises, problems or projects. These assessments are more valid than selected response tests because students must actively demonstrate their understanding. Effective performance assessments utilize rubrics to evaluate student work against specific criteria.

1. Diagnostic Tests
These tests are used o diagnose how much you know and what you know. They can help a teacher know what
needs to be reviewed or reinforced in class. They also enable the student to identify areas of weakness.
Placement Tests
These tests are used to place students in the appropriate class or level. For example, in language schools,
placement tests are used to check a student’s language level through grammar, vocabulary, reading
comprehension, writing, and speaking questions. After establishing the student’s level, the student is placed
in the appropriate class to suit his/her needs.
Progress or Achievement Tests
Achievement or progress tests measure the students’ improvement in relation to their syllabus. These tests
only contain items which the students have been taught in class. There are two types of progress tests: short-
term and long-term.
Short-term progress tests check how well students have understood or learned material covered in specific units
or chapters. They enable the teacher to decide if remedial or consolidation work is required.
Long-term progress tests are also called Course Tests because they check the learners’ progress over the
entire course. They enable the students to judge how well they have progressed. Administratively, they are often
the sole basis of decisions to promote to a higher level.
rogress tests can also be structured as quizzes, rather than as tests. They can be answered by teams of students,
rather than individuals. They can be formulated as presentations, posters, assignments, or research projects.
Structuring progress tests in this way takes into account the multiple intelligences and differing learning styles
of the students. Yet many students still expect a “regular test” as a part of “normal learning―.
Proficiency Tests
These tests check learner levels in relation to general standards. They provide a broad picture of knowledge and
ability. In English language learning, examples are the TOEFL and IELTS exams, which are mandatory for
foreign-language speakers seeking admission to English-speaking universities. In addition, the TOEIC (Test of
English for International Communication) checks students’ knowledge of Business English, as a
prerequisite for employment.
Internal Tests
Internal tests are those given by the institution where the learner is taking the course. They are often given at the
end of a course in the form of a final exam.
External Tests
External tests are those given by an outside body. Examples are the TOEFL, TOEIC, IELTS, SAT, ACT,
LSAT, GRE and GMAT. The exams themselves are the basis for admission to university, job recruitment, or
promotion.
Objective Tests
Objective tests are those that have clear right or wrong answers. Multiple-choice tests fall into this group.
Students have to select a pre-determined correct answer from three or four possibilities.
Subjective Tests
Subjective tests require the marker or examiner to make a subjective judgment regarding the marks deserved.
Examples are essay questions and oral interviews. For such tests, it is especially important that both examiner
and student are aware of the grading criteria in order to increase their validity.
Combination Tests
Many tests are a combination of objective and subjective styles. For example, on the TOEFL iBT, the Test of
English as a Foreign Language, the reading and listening sections are objective, and the writing and speaking
sections are subjective.
What Is Authentic Assessment?
Authentic assessment refers to assessment tasks that resemble reading and writing in the real
world and in school(Hiebert, Valencia & Afflerbach, 1994; Wiggins, 1993). Its aim is to assess

2. many different kinds of literacy abilities in contexts that closely resemble actual situations in
which those abilities are used. For example, authentic assessments ask students to read real
texts, to write for authentic purposes about meaningful topics, and to participate in authentic
literacy tasks such as discussing books, keeping journals, writing letters, and revising a piece of
writing until it works for the reader. Both the material and the assessment tasks look as natural
as possible. Furthermore, authentic assessmentvalues the thinking behind work, the process, as
much as the finished product(Pearson& Valencia, 1987; Wiggins, 1989; Wolf, 1989).
Working on authentic tasks is a useful, engaging activity in itself; it becomes an "episodeof
learning" for the student (Wolf, 1989). From the teacher's perspective, teaching to such tasks
guarantees that we are concentrating on worthwhile skills and strategies (Wiggins, 1989).
Students are learning and practicing how to apply important knowledge and skills for authentic
purposes. They should not simply recall information or circle isolated vowel sounds in words;
they should apply what they know to new tasks. For example, consider the difference between
asking students to identify all the metaphors in a story and asking them to discuss why the
author used particular metaphors and what effect they had on the story. In the latter case,
students must put their knowledge and skills to work just as they might do naturally in or out of
school.
Performance assessment is a term that is commonly used in place of, or with, authentic
assessment. Performance assessment requires students to demonstrate their knowledge, skills,
and strategies by creating a responseor a product(Rudner & Boston, 1994; Wiggins, 1989).
Rather than choosing from several multiple-choice options, students might demonstrate their
literacy abilities by conducting research and writing a report, developing a character analysis,
debating a character's motives, creating a mobile of important information they learned,
dramatizing a favorite story, drawing and writing about a story, or reading aloud a personally
meaningful section of a story. For example, after completing a first-grade theme on families in
which students learned about being part of a family and about the structure and sequence of
stories, students might illustrate and write their own flap stories with several parts, telling a
story about how a family member or friend helped them when they were feeling sad.
The formats for performance assessments range from relatively short answers to long-term
projects that require students to present or demonstrate their work. These performances often
require students to engage in higher-order thinking and to integrate many language arts skills.
Consequently, some performance assessments are longer and more complex than more
traditional assessments. Within a complete assessmentsystem, however, there should be a
balance of longer performance assessments and shorter ones.
Why should educators use authentic assessments?
Authentic assessments help students analyze what they’ve learned and apply it their own experience. They don’t
have to memorize facts for a test, so they can use their creativity to show what they’ve learned. For older students

3. who can use a combination of writing and speaking, authentic assessment helps them refine their writing and oral
presentation skills. Authentic assessment works great for groups, so students can get experience collaborating on
projects with their peers.
Tips for using authentic assessments
Do it often: While it takes time and effort to plan and carry out authentic assessments, they are very rewarding for
both the student and the teacher. When teachers first begin using them with a new class, they should expect some
challenges and work through them as best they can. With repeated use of authentic assessment, teachers and students
will become more comfortable with the process and come to enjoy the satisfaction that comes from completing
holistic projects.
Break it down: Many students get overwhelmed easily, so teachers should help them out by breaking down the
project into many small steps. For younger students, steps should be assigned to a time line, while students in middle
school and above can schedule the tasks on their own and learn about self-discipline at the same time.
Don’t dwell on rules: When creating authentic tasks, educators must remember that there is no one right way to do
them. They should approach it with the same creativity with which they expect their students to complete the work.
Go backwards: As teachers set out to design the lessons, they should first start with the assessment and what they
want the students to demonstrate at the end. By knowing which objectives they want to see students meet, they can
design their lessons accordingly.
Cater to students’ interests: Teachers should try to match the assessments to the interests of the students. This
won’t work in every situation, but think of how students will really jump into their work when tech-savvy kids get to
create a video or a website showing what they’ve learned or music-minded youngsters can share their knowledge via
lyrics.
Never underestimate the power of reflection: Have students reflect on the project and assessment once it’s
completed. This will help them to further synthesize what they have learned and it will give teachers an inside look
into what the children thought of the project. Additionally, students will feel glad to know that the teacher cares
about their opinions.
thentic assessment utilizes performance samples – learning activities that encourage students to use
higher-order thinking skills. There are five major types of performance samples:
1. Performance Assessment
Performance assessments test students' ability to use skills in a variety of authentic contexts. They
frequently require students to work collaboratively and to apply skills and concepts to solve complex
problems. Short- and long-term tasks include such activities as:

4.  writing, revising, and presenting a report to the class
 conducting a week-long science experiment and analyzing the results
 working with a team to prepare a position in a classroom debate
2. Short Investigations
Many teachers use short investigations to assess how well students have mastered basic concepts and
skills. Most short investigations begin with a stimulus, like a math problem, political cartoon, map, or
excerpt from a primary source. The teacher may ask students to interpret, describe, calculate, explain,
or predict. These investigations may use enhanced multiple-choice questions. Or they may use concept
mapping, a technique that assesses how well students understand relationships among concepts.
(Concept map printable)
3. Open-Response Questions
Open-response questions, like short investigations, present students with a stimulus and ask them to
respond. Responses include:
 a brief written or oral answer
 a mathematical solution
 a drawing
 a diagram, chart, or graph
4. Portfolios
A portfolio documents learning over time. This long-term perspective accounts for student
improvement and teaches students the value of self-assessment, editing, and revision. A student
portfolio can include:
 journal entries and reflective writing
 peer reviews
 artwork, diagrams, charts, and graphs
 group reports
 student notes and outlines
 rough drafts and polished writing
5. Self-Assessment
Self-assessment requires students to evaluate their own participation, process, and products. Evaluative
questions are the basic tools of self-assessment. Students give written or oral responses to questions
like:

5.  What was the most difficult part of this project for you?
 What do you think you should do next?
 If you could do this task again, what would you do differently?
 What did you learn from this project?
Many teachers find that authentic assessment is most successful when students know what teachers
expect. For this reason, teachers should always clearly define standards and expectations. Educators
often use rubrics, or established sets of criteria, to assess student work.
Because authentic assessment emphasizes process and performance, it encourages students to practice
critical-thinking skills and to get excited about the things they are learning. Try it in your classroom!
Performance Assessment
Performance assessment measures students skills based on authentic tasks such as activities, exercises,or problems that
require students to show what they can do.
In some cases performance tasks are used to have students demonstrate their understanding of a concept or topic by
applying their knowledge to a particular situation. For example, students might be given a current political map of Africa
showing the names and locations of countries and a similar map from 1945 and be asked to identify and explain
differences and similarities. To be more authentic (more like what someone might be expected to do in the adult world),
the task might be to prepare a newspaper article explaining the changes.
Because performance assessments require students to actively demonstrate what they know, they can be a more valid
indicator of students' knowledge and abilities than other assessment methods.
Performance Assessment
WHAT IS IT? Performance assessment, also known as alternative or authentic assessment, is a
form of testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a
ready-made list. For example, a student may be asked to explain historical events, generate
scientific hypotheses, solve math problems, converse in a foreign language, or conductresearch
on an assigned topic. Experienced raters--either teachers or other trained staff--then judge the
quality of the student's work based on an agreed-upon set of criteria. This new form of
assessment is most widely used to directly assess writing ability based on text produced by
students under test instructions.
HOW DOES IT WORK? Following are some methods that have been used successfully to
assess performance:
 Open-ended or extended response exercises are questions or other prompts that require
students to explore a topic orally or in writing. Students might be asked to describetheir
observations from a science experiment, or present arguments an historic character would

6. make concerning a particular proposition. For example, what would Abraham Lincoln
argue about the causes of the Civil War?
 Extended tasks are assignments that require sustained attention in a single work area and
are carried out over several hours or longer. Such tasks could include drafting, reviewing,
and revising a poem; conducting and explaining the results of a science experiment on
photosynthesis; or even painting a car in auto shop.
 Portfolios are selected collections of a variety of performance-based work. A portfolio
might include a student's "bestpieces" and the student's evaluation of the strengths and
weaknesses of several pieces. The portfolio may also contain some "works in progress"
that illustrate the improvements the student has made over time.
These methods, like all types of performance assessments, require that students actively develop
their approaches to the task under defined conditions, knowing that their work will be evaluated
according to agreed-upon standards. This requirement distinguishes performance assessment
from other forms of testing.
WHY TRY IT? Because they require students to actively demonstrate what they know,
performance assessments may be a more valid indicator of students' knowledge and abilities.
There is a big difference between answering multiple choice questions on how to make an oral
presentation and actually making an oral presentation.
More important, performance assessment can provide impetus for improving instruction, and
increase students' understanding of what they need to know and be able to do. In preparing their
students to work on a performance task, teachers describe what the task entails and the
standards that will be used to evaluate performance. This requires a careful description of the
elements of good performance, and allows students to judge their own work as they proceed.
WHAT DOES THE RESEARCHSAY? Active learning. Researchsuggests that learning how
and where information can be applied should be a central part of all curricular areas. Also,
students exhibit greater interest and levels of learning when they are required to organize facts
around major concepts and actively constructtheir own understanding of the concepts in a rich
variety of contexts. Performance assessment requires students to structure and apply
information, and thereby helps to engage students in this type of learning.
Curriculum-based testing. Performance assessments should be based on the curriculum rather
than constructed by someone unfamiliar with the particular state, district or schoolcurriculum.
This allows the curriculum to "drive" the test, rather than be encumbered by testing
requirements that disrupt instruction, as is often the case. Research shows that most teachers
shape their teaching in a variety of ways to meet the requirements of tests. Primarily becauseof
this impact of testing on instruction, many practitioners favor test reform and the new
performance assessments.
Worthwhile tasks. Performance tasks should be "worth teaching to"; that is, the tasks need to
present interesting possibilities for applying an array of curriculum-related knowledge and
skills. The best performance tasks are inherently instructional, actively engaging students in

7. worthwhile learning activities. Students may be encouraged by them to search out additional
information or try different approaches, and in some situations, to work in teams.
WHAT DOES IT COST? Thesepositive features of performance assessmentcome at a price.
Performance assessment requires a greater expense of time, planning and thought from students
and teachers. One teacher reports, "We can't just march through the curriculum anymore. It's
hard. I spend more time planning and more time coaching. At first, my students just wanted to
be told what to do. I had to help them to start thinking."
Users also need to pay close attention to technical and equity issues to ensure that the
assessments are fair to all students. This is all the more important as there has been very little
research and development on performance assessment in the environment of a high stakes
accountability system, where administrative and resource decisions are affected by measures of
student performance.
Rubric: A scoring scale used to assess student performance along a task -specific set of criteria
Authentic assessments typically are criterion-referenced measures. That is, a student's aptitude on a taskis determined by matching
the student's performance against a set of criteria to determine the degree to which the student's performance meets the crit eria for the
task. To measure student performance against a pre-determined set of criteria, a rubric, or scoring scale, is typically created which
contains the essential criteria for the task and appropriate levels of performance for each criterion. For example, the following rubric
(scoring scale) covers the research portion of a project:
Research Rubric
Criteria 1 2 3
Number of
Sources
x1 1-4 5-9 10-12
Historical
Accuracy
x3 Lots of historical inaccuracies Few inaccuracies No apparent inaccuracies
Organization x1
Can not tell fromwhich source
informationcame
Can tell with difficulty where
informationcame from
Can easily tell which sources
info was drawn from
Bibliography x1
Bibiliography contains very
little information
Bibliography contains most
relevant information
All relevant information is
included
As in the above example, a rubric is comprised of two components: criteria and levels of performance. Each rubric has at least two
criteria and at least two levels of performance. The criteria, characteristics of good performance on a task, are listed in the left-hand
column in the rubric above (number of sources,historical accuracy, organization and bibliography). Actually, as is common in rubrics,
the authorhas used shorthand for each criterion to make it fit easily into the table. The full criteria are statements of performance such
as "include a sufficient number of sources" and "project contains few historical inaccuracies."
For each criterion, the evaluator applying the rubric can determine to what degree the student has met the criterion, i.e., the level of
performance. In the above rubric, there are three levels of performance for each criterion. For example, the project can cont ain lots of
historical inaccuracies, few inaccuracies or no inaccuracies.
Finally, the rubric above contains a mechanism for assigning a score to each project. (Assessments and theiraccompanying rub rics
can be used for purposes otherthan evaluation and, thus,do not have to have points or grades attached to them.) In the second-to-left
column a weight is assigned each criterion. Students can receive 1, 2 or 3 points for "number of sources." But historical accuracy,
more important in this teacher's mind, is weighted three times (x3) as heavily. So, students can receive 3, 6 or 9 points (i.e., 1, 2 or 3
times 3) for the level of accuracy in their projects.

8. KINDS OF RUBRICS
Analytic Rubrics
An analytic rubric resembles a grid with the criteria for a student product listed in
the leftmost column and with levels of performance listed across the top row often
using numbers and/or descriptive tags. The cells within the center of the rubric may
be left blank or may contain descriptions of what the specified criteria look like for
each level of performance. When scoring with an analytic rubric each of the criteria
is scored individually.
Example Analytic Rubric
Articulating Thoughts Through Written Communication—FinalPaper
Needs
Improvement (1)
Developing (2) Sufficient (3)
Above
Average (4)
Clarity (Thesis
supported by
relevant
information and
ideas.)
The purpose of the
student work is not
well-defined.
Central ideas are
not focused to
support the thesis.
Thoughts appear
disconnected.
The central
purpose of the
student work is
identified. Ideas
are generally
focused in a
way that
supports the
thesis.
The central
purpose of the
student work is
clear and ideas
are almost
always focused
in a way that
supports the
thesis. Relevant
details illustrate
the author’s
ideas.
The central
purpose of the
student work is
clear and
supporting
ideas always
are always
well-focused.
Details are
relevant, enrich
the work.
Organization
(Sequencing of
elements/ideas)
Information and
ideas are poorly
sequenced (the
author jumps
around). The
audience has
difficulty
Information and
ideas are
presented in an
order that the
audience can
follow with
Information and
ideas are
presented in a
logical sequence
which is
followed by the
Information and
ideas are
presented in a
logical
sequence which
flows naturally

9. following the
thread of thought.
minimum
difficulty.
reader with little
or no difficulty.
and is engaging
to the audience.
Mechanics
(Correctness of
grammar and
spelling)
There are five or
more misspellings
and/or systematic
grammatical errors
per page or 8 or
more in the entire
document. The
readability of the
work is seriously
hampered by
errors.
There are no
more than four
misspellings
and/or
systematic
grammatical
errors per page
or six or more in
the entire
document.
Errors distract
from the work.
There are no
more than three
misspellings
and/or
grammatical
errors per page
and no more than
five in the entire
document. The
readability of the
work is
minimally
interrupted by
errors.
There are no
more than two
misspelled
words or
grammatical
errors in the
document.
Advantages of Analytic Rubrics
 Provide useful feedback on areas of strength and weakness.
 Criterion can be weighted to reflect the relative importance of each dimension.
Disadvantages of Analytic Rubrics
 Takes more time to create and use than a holistic rubric.
 Unless each point for each criterion is well-defined raters may not arrive at the
same score
Developmental Rubrics
Developmental rubrics are a subset of analytic trait rubrics.
The main distinction between developmental rubrics and other analytic trait rubrics
is that the purpose of developmental rubrics is not to evaluate an end product or
performance. Instead, developmental rubrics are designed to answer the question,
“to what extent are students who engage in our programs/services developing this
skill/ability/value/etc.?”

10. Generally, this type of rubric would be based on a theory of development.
Example Developmental Rubric
Intercultural Maturity
Domain
Initial Level of
Development (1)
Intermediate Level of
Development (2)
Mature Level of
Development (3)
Cognitive
Assumes knowledge is
certain and categorizes
knowledge claims as
right or wrong; is naive
about different cultural
practices and values;
resists challenges to
one’s own beliefs and
views differing cultural
perspectives as wrong
Evolving awareness and
acceptance of
uncertainty and multiple
perspectives; ability to
shift from accepting
authority’s knowledge
claims to personal
processes for adopting
knowledge claims
Ability to consciously
shift perspectives and
behaviors into an
alternative cultural
worldview and to use
multiple cultural frames
Intrapersonal
Lack of awareness of
one’s own values and
intersection of social
(racial, class, ethnicity,
sexual orientation)
identity; lack of
understanding of other
cultures; externally
defined identity yields
externally defined
beliefs that regulate
interpretation of
experiences and guide
choices; difference is
viewed as a threat to
identity
Evolving sense of
identity as distinct from
external others’
perceptions; tension
between external and
internal definitions
prompts self-exploration
of values, racial
identity, beliefs;
immersion in own
culture; recognizes
legitimacy of other
cultures
Capacity to create an
internal self that openly
engages challenges to
one’s views and beliefs
and that considers social
identities (race, class,
gender, etc.) in a global
and national context;
integrates aspects of self
into one’s identity
Interpersonal
Dependent relations
with similar others is a
primary source of
identity and social
Willingness to interact
with diverse others and
refrain from judgment;
relies on independent
Capacity to engage in
meaningful,
interdependent
relationships with

11. affirmation; perspectives
of different others are
viewed as wrong;
awareness of how social
systems affect group
norms and intergroup
differences is lacking;
view social problems
egocentrically, no
recognition of society as
an organized entity
relations in which
multiple perspectives
exist (but are not
coordinated); self is
often overshadowed by
need for others’
approval. Begins to
explore how social
systems affect group
norms and intergroup
relations
diverse others that are
grounded in an
understanding and
appreciation for human
differences;
understanding of ways
individual and
community practices
affect social systems;
willing to work for the
rights of other
King, P.M. & Baxter Magolda, M.B. (2005). A developmental model of
intercultural maturity, Journal of College Student Development, 46(2), 571-592.
Advantages of Developmental Rubrics
 Useful when the goal of evaluation is to determine level of development rather than
the quality of a final product.
 Especially when there is no expectation that students should or could fully develop
a skill or ability during the course of their education or potentially ever (such as in
“Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,” there is no expectation people can or will become
“self-actualized”).
 Rubric can be based on relevant developmental theory.
Disadvantages of Developmental Rubrics
 Conceptually, this type of rubric is more difficult to design.
 Developing a developmental rubric requires a close tie between assessment criteria
and the theory of development.
Holistic Rubrics
A holistic rubric consists of a single scale with all criteria to be included in the
evaluation being considered together (e.g., clarity, organization, and mechanics).
With a holistic rubric the rater assigns a single score (usually on a 1 to 4 or 1 to 6
point scale) based on an overall judgment of the student work. The rater matches an
entire piece of student work to a single description on the scale.

12. Example Holistic Rubric
Articulating thoughts through written communication— final paper/project.
4. Above Average: The audience is able to easily identify the focus of the work and is
engaged by its clear focus and relevant details. Information is presented logically
and naturally. There are no more than two mechanical errors or misspelled words to
distract the reader.
3. Sufficient: The audience is easily able to identify the focus of the student work
which is supported by relevant ideas and supporting details. Information is
presented in a logical manner that is easily followed. There is minimal interruption
to the work due to misspellings and/or mechanical errors.
2. Developing: The audience can identify the central purpose of the student work
without little difficulty and supporting ideas are present and clear. The information
is presented in an orderly fashion that can be followed with little difficulty. There
are some misspellings and/or mechanical errors, but they do not seriously distract
from the work.
1. Needs Improvement: The audience cannot clearly or easily identify the central
ideas or purpose of the student work. Information is presented in a disorganized
fashion causing the audience to have difficulty following the author's ideas. There
are many misspellings and/or mechanical errors that negatively affect the audience's
ability to read the work.
Advantages of Holistic Rubrics
 Emphasis on what the learner is able to demonstrate, rather than what s/he cannot
do.
 Saves time by minimizing the number of decisions raters make.
 Can be applied consistently by trained raters increasing reliability.
Disadvantages of Holistic Rubrics
 Does not provide specific feedback for improvement.
 When student work is at varying levels spanning the criteria points it can be
difficult to select the single best description.
 Criteria cannot be weighted.

13. What is a portfolio?
A student portfolio is a systematic collection of student work and related material that depicts
a student's activities, accomplishments, and achievements in one or more schoolsubjects. The
collection should include evidence of student reflection and self-evaluation, guidelines for
selecting the portfolio contents, and criteria for judging the quality of the work. The goal is to
help students assemble portfolios that illustrate their talents, represent their writing capabilities,
and tell their stories of schoolachievement... (Venn, 2000, pp. 530-531)
Two Types of Portfolios:
Process and productportfolios represent the two major types of portfolios. A process
portfolio documents the stages of learning and provides a progressive record of student growth.
A product portfolio demonstrates mastery of a learning task or a set of learning objectives and
contains only the best work... Teachers use process portfolios to help students identify learning
goals, document progress over time, and demonstrate learning mastery... In general, teachers
prefer to use process portfolios because they are ideal for documenting the stages that students
go through as they learn and progress (Venn, 2000, p. 533).
Steps in the Portfolio Assessment Process
First, the teacher and the student need to clearly identify the portfolio contents, which are
samples of student work, reflections, teacher observations, and conference records. Second, the
teacher should develop evaluation procedures for keeping track of the portfolio contents and for
grading the portfolio... Third, the teacher needs a plan for holding portfolio conferences, which
are formal and informal meetings in which students review their work and discuss their
progress. Because they encourage reflective teaching and learning, these conference are an
essential part of the portfolio assessment process (Venn, 2000, p. 540).
Advantages of Portfolio Assessment
 Promoting student self-evaluation, reflection, and critical thinking.
 Measuring performance based on genuine samples of student work.
 Providing flexibility in measuring how students accomplish their learning goals.
 Enabling teachers and students to share the responsibility for setting learning goals and
for evaluating progress toward meeting those goals.
 Giving students the opportunity to have extensive input into the learning process.
 Facilitating cooperative learning activities, including peer evaluation and tutoring,
cooperative learning groups, and peer conferencing.
 Providing a process forstructuring learning in stages.
 Providing opportunities for students and teachers to discuss learning goals and the
progress toward those goals in structured and unstructured conferences.
 Enabling measurement of multiple dimensions of student progress by including different
types of data and materials. (Venn, 2000, p. 538)

14. Disadvantages of Portfolio Assessment
 Requiring extra time to plan an assessmentsystem and conductthe assessment.
 Gathering all of the necessary data and work samples can make portfolios bulky and
difficult to manage.
 Developing a systematic and deliberate management system is difficult, but this step is
necessary in order to make portfolios more than a random collection of student work.
 Scoring portfolios involves the extensive use of subjective evaluation procedures such as
rating scales and professional judgment, and this limits reliability.
 Scheduling individual portfolio conferences is difficulty and the length of each
conference may interfere with other instructional activities. (Venn, 2000, p. 538)
Chapter 1. The Types of Portfolios
As more and more educators use portfolios, they increasingly recognize that the process has the power to transform
instruction. Some teachers, however, are confused by the many types of portfolios, their different uses, and the practical
issues surrounding storage, ownership, and the like.
The three major types of portfolios are:working portfolios, display portfolios, and assessment portfolios. Although the
types are distinct in theory, they tend to overlap in practice. Consequently, a district's program may include several
different types of portfolios, serving severaldifferent purposes. As a result, it is important for educators to be clear about
their goals, the reasons they are engaging in a portfolio project, and the intended audience for the portfolios.
Working Portfolios
A working portfolio is so named because it is a project “in the works,” containing work in progress as well as finished
samples of work. It serves as a holding tank for work that may be selected later for a more permanent assessment or
display portfolio.
A working portfolio is different from a work folder,which is simply a receptacle for all work, with no purpose to the
collection. A working portfolio is an intentional collection of work guided by learning objectives.
Purpose
The major purpose of a working portfolio is to serve as a holding tank for student work. The pieces related to a specific
topic are collected here until they move to an assessment portfolio or a display portfolio, or go home with the student. In
addition, the working portfolio may be used to diagnose student needs. Here both student and teacher have evidence of
student strengths and weaknesses in achieving learning objectives, information extremely useful in designing future
instruction.
Audience
Given its use in diagnosis, the primary audience for a working portfolio is the student, with guidance from the teacher. By
working on the portfolio and reflecting on the quality of work contained there, the student becomes more reflective and
self-directed. With very young children, however, the primary audience is the teacher,with the participation of the
student.

15. Parents may be another important audience of a working portfolio, since it can help inform parent/teacher conferences.
The portfolio is particularly useful for those parents who do not accept the limitations of their child's current skills or do
not have a realistic picture of the way their child is progressing compared with other children. In such situations, evidence
from a portfolio can truly “speak a thousand words.” In addition, a portfolio can serve to document the progress a student
has made, progress of which a parent may be unaware.
Process
A working portfolio is typically structured around a specific content area; pieces collected relate to the objectives of that
unit and document student progress toward mastery of those objectives. Therefore,sufficient work must be collected to
provide ample evidence of student achievement. Because diagnosis is a major purpose of the working portfolio, some of
the pieces included will show less than complete understanding and will help shape future instruction.
The working portfolio is reviewed as a whole and its pieces evaluated—either periodically or at the end of the learning
unit. Some pieces may be shifted to an assessment portfolio to document student acquisition of instructional objectives.
Other pieces may be moved to a student's own display (or best works) portfolio or celebration of individual learning. Still
other pieces are sent home with the student.
As students move pieces from a working portfolio into either an assessment or display portfolio, they describe the reasons
for their choices. In this process of selection and description, students must reflect seriously on their work and what it
demonstrates about them as learners. As students and their teachers look through the portfolio, they set short-term
objectives for achieving certain curriculum goals. The portfolio thus provides evidence of strengths and weaknesses and
serves to define the next steps in learning.
Display, Showcase, or Best Works Portfolios
Probably the most rewarding use of student portfolios is the display of the students' best work, the work that makes them
proud. Students, as well as their teachers,become most committed to the process when they experience the joy of
exhibiting their best work and interpreting its meaning. Many educators who do not use portfolios for any other purpose
engage their students in the creation of display portfolios. The pride and sense of accomplishment that students feel make
the effort well worthwhile and contribute to a culture for learning in the classroom.
Purpose
The purpose of a display portfolio is to demonstrate the highest level of achievement attained by the student. Collecting
items for this portfolio is a student's way of saying “Here's who I am. Here is what I can do.”
A display portfolio may be maintained from year to year,with new pieces added each year,documenting growth over
time. And while a best works portfolio may document student efforts with respect to curriculum objectives, it may also
include evidence of student activities beyond school (a story written at home, for example).
There are many possibilities for the contents of a display portfolio. The benefits of portfolios were first recognized in the
area of language arts,specifically in writing. Therefore,writing portfolios are the most widely known and used. But
students may elect to put many types of items in their portfolio of best works—a drawing they like, a poem they have
written, a list of books they have read,or a difficult problem they have solved.
Audience
Since the student selects her or his own best works, the audience for a display portfolio is that student and the other
important individuals, such as parents and older siblings, to whom the student chooses to show the portfolio. Other
audiences include a current teacher or next year's teacher,who may learn a lot about the student by studying the portfolio.

16. In addition, a student may submit portfolios of best works to colleges or potential employers to supplement other
information; art students have always used this approach. The contents of these portfolios are determined by the interests
of the audience and may include videos, written work, projects, resumés, and testimonials. The act of assembling a display
portfolio for such a practical purpose can motivate high school students to produce work of high quality.
Process
Most pieces for a display portfolio are collected in a working portfolio of school projects. Sometimes, however, a student
will include a piece of work from outside the classroom, such as a project from scouts or a poem written at home.
Students select the items to be included in a display portfolio. Their choices define them as students and as learners. In
making their selections, students illustrate what they believe to be important about their learning, what they value and
want to show to others.
Assessment Portfolios
The primary function of an assessment portfolio is to document what a student has learned. The content of the curriculum,
then, will determine what students select for their portfolios. Their reflective comments will focus on the extent to which
they believe the portfolio entries demonstrate their mastery of the curriculum objectives. For example, if the curriculum
specifies persuasive, narrative, and descriptive writing, an assessment portfolio should include examples of each type of
writing. Similarly, if the curriculum calls for mathematical problem solving and mathematical communication, then the
display portfolio will include entries documenting both problem solving and communication, possibly in the same entry.
Purpose
The primary purpose of an assessment portfolio is to document student learning on specific curriculum outcomes. As
such, the items in the portfolio must be designed to elicit the knowledge and skill specified in the outcomes. It is the
assessment tasks that bring the curriculum outcomes to life; only by specifying precisely what students must do and how
well they must do it do these statements of learning have meaning.
Assessment portfolios may be used to demonstrate mastery in any curricular area. They may span any period of time,
from one unit to the entire year. And they may be dedicated to one subject or many subjects. For example, a teacher may
wish to have evidence that a child has sufficient skills in a content area to move to the next level or grade. The criteria for
moving on and the types of necessary evidence must be established. Then the portfolio is compiled and assessed.
Audience
There are many possible audiences for an assessment portfolio, depending on its specific purpose. One audience may be
the classroom teacher,who may become convinced that the objectives of an instructional unit have been mastered or who
may decide to place a student in advanced classes or special sections. Alternatively, the audience may be the school
district or even the state, seeking documentation of student learning, and permitting a student to move to the high school
or receive a diploma. A secondary, though very important, audience is always the student, who provides evidence of
significant learning.
Process
There are eight basic steps in developing an assessment portfolio system. Since portfolio entries represent a type of
performance,these steps resemble the principles for developing good performance assessments.
1. Determine the curricular objectives to be addressed through the portfolio.
2. Determine the decisions that will be made based on the portfolio assessments. Will the assessments be used for high-
stakes assessment at certain levels of schooling (for example, to enable students to make the transition from middle
school to high school)?

17. 3. Design assessment tasks for the curricular objectives. Ensure that the task matches instructional intentions and
adequately represents the content and skills (including the appropriate level of difficulty) students are expected to
attain. These considerations will ensure the validity of the assessment tasks.
4. Define the criteria for each assessment task and establish performance standards for each criterion.
5. Determine who will evaluate the portfolio entries. Will they be teachers from the students' own school? Teachers
from another school? Or does the state identify and train evaluators?
6. Train teachers or other evaluators to score the assessments. This will ensure the reliability of the assessments.
7. Teach the curriculum, administer assessments,collect them in portfolios, score assessments.
8. As determined in Step 2, make decisions based on the assessments in the portfolios.
Challenges
Assessment portfolios raise many important practical and technical issues, particularly if they are used for high-stakes
decisions. Portfolios can be used to establish that students have mastered the essential elements of the curriculum, and
high school graduation can be contingent on demonstrating this mastery. In cases like this, it is essential that the
procedures used to evaluate student work in the portfolio meet standards of validity and reliability.
How will student products be evaluated if student writing or mathematical problem solving is included in the portfolio?
How will practitioners be sure that the products are good enough, that the work is of high quality? By what criteria will
student work be judged? To answer these questions, educators develop scoring guides, or rubrics, with clear criteria and
descriptions of different levels of performance. And to ensure inter-rater agreement, they collect samples of student work
at the different levels (called anchor papers) and conduct training sessions for assessors.
But even in a classroom environment where the stakes are lower,assessment portfolios are more formal affairs than those
designed to diagnose learning needs (working portfolios) or to celebrate learning (best works portfolios). In an assessment
portfolio, the content matters and it must demonstrate and document what students have learned. The origin of an
assessment portfolio may be quite external to the student and his world. The mandate may come from outside the
classroom—for instance, via curriculum committees and board action, or directly from the state department of education.
Moreover, the eventual owner of the portfolio's contents may be someone other than the student. In addition, the selection
process is more controlled and dictated, since the portfolio entries must document particular learning outcomes. And there
may be no opportunity for the student to “show off” his or her portfolio.
Innovative Uses of Portfolios
A major contribution of portfolios is that they allow students to document aspects of their learning that do not show up
well in traditional assessments. Some examples follow.
Community Service
Community service is now required in many schools. Since this type of activity is not well suited to traditional
assessments such as tests and quizzes, portfolio assessment provides an excellent vehicle for assessing the goals of a
community service curriculum. Students can collect examples of service, select the best ones, reflect on their experiences,
and determine future goals. The entries in such a portfolio might include research,narrative summaries of activities
performed, pictures, videos, projects, and the like. The community, in addition to the school, may be an audience for this
portfolio.
Interdisciplinary Unit
An interdisciplinary unit of study that includes many different content areas is often difficult to evaluate using traditional
methods of assessment. A portfolio can provide a way to include many types of work that indicate proficiency in various

18. disciplines. Entries might show evidence of growth in a single content area or a combination of areas. The cumulative
effect of work in many disciplines, all relating to a single theme or topic, can be illuminating to the student as well as to
others. An interdisciplinary unit on the rainforest, for example, could culminate in a portfolio containing samples of
student accomplishment in writing, math, social studies, and art.
Subject Area Portfolios
Student learning in some areas is greatly enhanced through the use of portfolios to document learning. Portfolios are well
established in writing. But there are many other excellent applications of the technique. A foreign language portfolio
could have cultural artifacts relating to religion, art,and celebrations, as well as evidence of written and spoken
proficiency in the language. A social studies portfolio could have interviews, projects, models, and reports. And art
portfolios are well recognized as the optimal means of capturing the best of student performance in the arts,with
drawings, slides, and examples of music composed or performed.
College Admission
Many colleges now request samples of student work from candidates for admission. Portfolios of best works are well
suited to this purpose. Anything may be included in such a portfolio, including written work, videos, or projects, and the
contents may be customized to suit the purposes of the student and the institution. The goal of assembling a portfolio for
college admission has the additional benefit of providing powerful motivation for students during their high school years.
Employment
Some employers request samples of work from prospective employees. As with portfolios prepared for college
admissions, students can use employment portfolios to document those features of their preparation that they believe
would best convince an employer of their expertise in areas such as basic skills, problem solving and adaptability, and
collaborative work skills. This movement toward employment portfolios is being fueled, in large part, by the national
school to work movement, through which employers are insisting on a better-educated workforce (U.S. Dept. of Labor
1991).
Skill Area Portfolios
It is often desirable to demonstrate that students have acquired skills in specific areas,such as public speaking, problem
solving, or the use of technology. Because these are assessment portfolios, attention must be paid to establishing relevant
criteria, setting acceptable standards of performance, and selecting pieces that meet those standards. Because these skills
also cut across disciplines, educators must determine whether students may demonstrate the skills in any manner they
choose, or whether specific tasks will be established for them.
Summary
Portfolios may take many different forms and may be used for many different purposes. They may be used to diagnose,
document, or celebrate learning. Regardless of their primary purpose or audience, they have the power to transform the
learning environment in the classrooms where they are used. The magic of portfolios lies not in the portfolios themselves,
but in the process used in creating them and the school culture in which documented learning is valued.
The Portfolio Process
The process of facilitating successful student portfolios can be broken into four steps:
1. collection

19. 2. selection
3. reflection
4. connection
Collection
Although the first step, collection, is straight-forward, it is not always an easy step to facilitate successfully. It
simply requires students to collect and store all of their work. Three challenges at this step are common.
One, most students and many teachers are not accustomed to documenting and saving all class work.
Two, there is seldom an obvious place to put the work as it is collected, particularly when artwork or
lab work is involved. And three, it is not always obvious how to generate artifacts from things like field
trips, community service projects, jobs, and sports. The key skill in this step is to get students
accustomed to collecting and documenting whenever possible..
Selection
How one facilitates the second step, selection, depends on the kind of portfolio (process or product
oriented) and to what degree a teacher stipulates portfolio requirements. In this step, students will go
through the work they collectedand select the artifacts for their portfolio. This may be done by the
student alone, with peers, and/or with the teacher. Many characteristics about the curriculum come to
light in this step, particularly the nature of the work students are doing in class. For instance, if all
students have to show are quizzes and tests, the portfolio will be rendered almost meaningless by
failing to shed light on anything other than a student's ability to take exams. If, however, students have
a more diverse set of work such as audio/video recordings, artwork, projects, journals, computer work,
homework, compositions, etc., as well as exams, the portfolio will come to life. In this manner,
portfolios provide a great deal of motivation to diversify approaches to teaching and learning.