This chapter explores cultural representations of birth and death through an analysis of various folk customs and beliefs. It notes the symbolic parallel between how babies are born headfirst and the dead are carried feet first out of this world. This axial reversal is connected to other inversions such as newborns being bathed as they enter the world and the dead being washed as they leave. The chapter seeks to fit these various pieces together to gain insight into underlying conceptualizations of birth, death, and the cycle of life. It aims to reconstruct dimensions of worldview that have fallen into obscurity through this puzzle-solving approach.
“The Subversive Triad: A Theoretical Approach”, Myth and Subversion in the Contemporary Novel, José Manuel Losada y Marta Guirao (eds.), Newcastle upon Tyne, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012, pp. 3-12. (Spanish version: “La tríada subversiva: un acercamiento teórico”, pp. 13-22]. ISBN: 1-4438-3746-6.
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“The Subversive Triad: A Theoretical Approach”, Myth and Subversion in the Contemporary Novel, José Manuel Losada y Marta Guirao (eds.), Newcastle upon Tyne, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2012, pp. 3-12. (Spanish version: “La tríada subversiva: un acercamiento teórico”, pp. 13-22]. ISBN: 1-4438-3746-6.
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Keynote lecture given at the Amsterdam School of Cultural Analysis workshop on Transparency/Opacity, 23rd March 2016. http://asca.uva.nl/conferences/asca-workshop-2016-transparency-opacity/asca-workshop-2016-kopie.html See also slides uploaded separately.
21. “Myth and Origins: Men Want to Know”, Journal of Literature and Art Studies (Nueva York), October 2015, vol. 5, nº 10, p. 930-945. ISSN: 2159-5836 (print) 2159-5844 (online). DOI: 10.17265/2159-5836/2015.10.013.
http://www.davidpublisher.org/index.php/Home/Article/index?id=19420.html
Intuitivie Moments - Discernment of Conscience looks at the millennia from a historic perspective. Important insights into a millennial history either poorly understood or fundamentally unknown - great pictures and quotes for the seeker of truth.
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Keynote lecture given at the Amsterdam School of Cultural Analysis workshop on Transparency/Opacity, 23rd March 2016. http://asca.uva.nl/conferences/asca-workshop-2016-transparency-opacity/asca-workshop-2016-kopie.html See also slides uploaded separately.
21. “Myth and Origins: Men Want to Know”, Journal of Literature and Art Studies (Nueva York), October 2015, vol. 5, nº 10, p. 930-945. ISSN: 2159-5836 (print) 2159-5844 (online). DOI: 10.17265/2159-5836/2015.10.013.
http://www.davidpublisher.org/index.php/Home/Article/index?id=19420.html
Intuitivie Moments - Discernment of Conscience looks at the millennia from a historic perspective. Important insights into a millennial history either poorly understood or fundamentally unknown - great pictures and quotes for the seeker of truth.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
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• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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BÀI TẬP BỔ TRỢ TIẾNG ANH GLOBAL SUCCESS LỚP 3 - CẢ NĂM (CÓ FILE NGHE VÀ ĐÁP Á...
Archeology Of Intangible Heritage
1.
2. IN M E M O R I A M
Alan Dundes (1934–2005), Helena Gentil Vaz da Silva (1939–2002)
3.
4. Contents
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................ix
Introduction....................................................................................................1
I. Physiology
1. Sexual Horns..............................................................................................7
2. Metaphors of Conception......................................................................33
3. Feminine Primacy ...................................................................................51
II. Metaphysics
4. Lunar Births .............................................................................................63
5. Cosmic Cycles..........................................................................................89
III. Transpositions
6. The Madonna and the Cuckoo...........................................................111
7. Jesus Christ in Light of Folklore ........................................................135
Epilogue ......................................................................................................163
Works Cited................................................................................................171
Index ............................................................................................................185
5.
6. Acknowledgments
he research for this book was mostly conducted at the University
of California, Berkeley, thanks to a Visiting Professorship I held in
2001/2002 by invitation of the late Professor Alan Dundes, and also to
travel grants provided in 2003 and 2005 by the Luso-American Devel-
opment Foundation (Lisbon) and the Portuguese Studies Program
(Berkeley). In Berkeley, Raquel Barreto, Stanley Brandes, Julia Kempe,
and José Luiz Passos granted me amity and occasional shelter. In Lis-
bon, three steadfast friends whom I scarcely need name anymore of-
fered me wise advice. Thomas R. Trautmann, the former Editor of
Comparative Studies in Society and History, has been heartening and
helpful beyond his call of duty. And, last but not least, the publication
of this book owes much to Carolyn Dundes and Phyllis Korper. To all
I am deeply obliged.
Chapters one and six have been previously published in Compara-
tive Studies in Society and History as, respectively, “Sexual Horns: The
Anatomy and Metaphysics of Cuckoldry in European Folklore” (vol.
48, no. 2 [2006]: 396–418), and “The Madonna and the Cuckoo: An
Exploration in European Symbolic Conceptions” (vol. 46, no. 2 [2004]:
273–99). Both are reprinted by permission of the publisher. All rights
reserved.
The publication of this book has been sponsored in part by the Ins-
tituto de Estudos de Literatura Tradicional (Lisbon).
T
7.
8. Introduction
arcel Proust liked to recall that the numbing tyranny of habit
prevents us from fully perceiving our surroundings. It takes his
namesake, Marcel, an unaccustomed night ride on a night train to—
rendered temporarily free from habit—see the sunrise on the face of a
peasant maiden with the marveled eyes of one making a precious dis-
covery. For the rest of us, too, a break in routine may propitiate per-
ceiving matters afresh, and then, there is no telling the number of fa-
miliar things the mind’s eye could see under the colors of unexpected
dawns.1
Say that one fine day you wonder whether the notion that the dead
are supposed to leave this world with feet first relates to the fact that
babies are normally born headfirst, and what the implications of such
axial reversal might be. Or suppose that, finding yourself in the deli-
cate position of having to explain to a child where babies come from,
you ask yourself why—why, after all—storks should purportedly
bring newborns from some watery place. Or yet, having decided to
take Shakespeare for summer reading, you notice that the recurrent
theme of cuckoldry brings embedded the cuckoo, somehow related to
the theme of horns. While at it, you might wonder why cheated hus-
bands should happen to be called after the he-goat (cabrón), and
whether this relates to the longstanding trend of calling children
“kids.”
Or imagine that you go to an art museum and notice how the Vir-
gin Mary has dressed in red and blue for centuries, before she devel-
oped a taste for white. While wondering about this predilection for
red (that for celestial blue seems easier to understand), you might re-
late it to the recurrent association of the Virgin with rosaries, roses,
and other flowers in enclosed gardens. This would make sense once
you recalled that the popular expression “defloration” supposes that
virgins possess flowers; you might even recollect that Marcel Proust
refers to young ladies as “maidens in flowers,” jeunes filles en fleurs.
Elated, you would summon to mind the longstanding link between
women and flowers. But by then, having stopped in wonder before a
crucifix where blooming roses figure the wounds of Christ, you
would have to ask yourself how this fits with your previous deduc-
tions. And you might foresee a long road to travel in exhuming an-
cient meanings now enshrouded in forgetfulness.
M
9. 2 Archeology of Intangible Heritage
This handful of examples will do to illustrate one basic point of
this book. At every turn in our daily lives (provided that the numbing
grip of habit on perception is not too tight), tiny faults in the smooth
skin of the conceptual order of things suggest the possibility of insight
into aspects of worldview fallen into oblivion. The very resilience of
those traces of traditional thought (as when our children are “kids,”
or the first sexual experience entails “defloration”) intimates that we
often make use of imagery we do not necessarily understand—as
though we came to be out of touch with a conceptual heritage that
still influences our perception, albeit in unconscious ways. This book
proposes an archeology of such intangible heritage.
The phrase “archeology of intangible heritage” looks, of course,
like a contradiction in terms. Archeology is not about insubstantial
things; intangible heritage must thrive in the present if one is to per-
ceive it at all. But my usage of “intangible heritage” does not refer to
oral traditions per se; neither does it designate the immediacy of, say,
cultural life in a marketplace. Rather, it refers to the conceptual di-
mension of concrete data. This work rests on the assumption that ac-
tual customs and so-called beliefs, traditional narratives and art, and
folklore data in general are signifiers—pointers to a conceptual fabric
that confers sense. Hence, discussions to follow draw on ancient
sources, as well as on modern ethnography and folklore, in order to
examine the tacit coherence of underlying representations. It is in this
sense that I maintain that exploration of inconsistencies in the smooth
skin of “reality” restitutes to awareness dimensions of worldview
fallen into oblivion—if not into nonexistence. By and large, then, one
could say this book aims to dispel the fog of modern oblivion con-
cerning ideational patterns that still matter but have slipped out of
consciousness.
The first part of the book, Physiology, lays out the groundwork. It
starts with a tentative examination of the obscure (if enduring) notion
of transmissible sexual horns, which yields a first approach to a per-
vasive folk model of sexual exchanges and fertility (chap. 1). Explora-
tion of this model in the light of a metaphor of procreation first men-
tioned by Aristotle further elucidates a physiology of fungible fluids
rife with gender implications, the cosmic underpinnings of which are
briefly examined (chap. 2). Then a tacit principle of feminine pri-
macy—physiologically enacted, and yet metaphysically motivated—
comes under scrutiny (chap. 3). Altogether, these opening chapters
introduce the reader to aspects of a pervasive cyclic mindset hinging
on the tenet that all life comes out of death.
10. Introduction 3
The second part of the book, Metaphysics, explores this other-
world-oriented postulate and also clarifies the cosmological frame-
work of physiological notions examined in the first section. First,
scrutiny of the lunar symbolism of birth as well as of Plato’s famous
myth of alternating time (in Statesman 268–74) elucidates representa-
tions of the beyond as a regenerating locus of reversed time (chap. 4).
Then this trend of intertextual readings of ancient sources and mod-
ern folklore is extended towards mapping perennial ideas on the fate
of the dead (chap. 5).
The third part of the book, Transpositions, explores renditions of
previously examined themes in the idioms of Christendom and thus
gauges the resilience of the intangible heritage appraised. In order to
evoke the mental landscapes that Christian thought consolidated
throughout centuries of relentless symbolic elaboration, the two final
chapters unfold through folklore and ethnography, the Christian
scriptures, apocryphal traditions, and Renaissance art.
Taken as a whole, this book argues that to grasp the tacit logic of
much that we see and hear in daily life involves probing hidden
realms of meaning. Its intent, in a nutshell, is to impart to readers the
sort of break in intellectual routine that might propitiate looking anew
at familiar things.
Notes
1. Marcel Proust, À la recherche du temps perdu (Paris: Quarto/Gallimard, 1999), 521–
22.
14. 1. Sexual Horns
his chapter explores cultural assumptions implied in the long-
standing idea that a wronged husband somehow gets to be
horned. Here is how John Brand, the famous English 19th-century
antiquarian, defines the scope of this problem:
The consideration of the vulgar saying, that a husband wears horns, or is a cor-
nute, when his wife proves false to him; as also that of the meaning of the
term cuckold, which has for many years been the popular indication of the
same kind of infamy, which also it has been usual slyly to hint at by throw-
ing out the little and forefinger when we point at those whom we tacitly call
cuckolds.1
It is amazing how widespread this imagery is, considering its opacity.
Think of it: why should horns and cuckoos be the attributes of the
unhappy husband?
A Shakespearean Theme
Brand rightly records his perplexity that the word cuckold, “gen-
erally derived from cuculus, a cuckoo, has happened to be given to the
injured husband, for it seems more properly to belong to the adul-
terer, the cuckoo being well known to be a bird that deposits its eggs
in other birds’ nests.” He notes that the same applies to the saying
that the cheated husband wears horns, for
It is well known that the word horn in the Sacred Writings denotes fortitude
and vigour of mind; and that in the classics, personal courage…is intimated
by horns. Whence then are we to deduce a very ancient custom…of saying
that the unhappy husbands of false women wear horns, or are cornutes?2
In the same vein, Julian Pitt-Rivers, working in the context of con-
temporary Spanish culture, acknowledges the “curious inversion”
through which the “word cabrón (a he-goat), the symbol of male sexu-
ality in many contexts,” refers “not to him whose manifestation of
that quality is the cause of the trouble but to him whose implied lack
of manliness had allowed the other to replace him.” To answer this
question, Pitt-Rivers proposes that received horns represent the ritual
defilement, or “state of desecration,” of the husband unable to defend
the “sanctity” of his wife’s virtue. In this perspective, the cheated
husband’s horns are both the devil’s symbol, rife with anti-social con-
T
15. 2. Metaphors of Conception
rom what point a view might a child be deemed analogous to a
cheese? While the question seems silly, it addresses the intriguing
discovery (by anthropologist Sandra Ott) that twentieth-century
Basque shepherds represented sexual conception by an ancient
cheese-making analogy. This analogy had been known to Aristotle
and to Biblical writers (see Job 10:10), and it has been used throughout
centuries by authors ranging from Pliny the Elder to Hildegard of
Bingen. All the while, it was presumably current among the folk,
for—more than six hundred years before Ott reported her discov-
ery—officers of the Holy Inquisition had noted in the same Pyrenean
region the belief that a certain herb endowed with anti-rennet proper-
ties is, “hence, contraceptive.” Uses of the cheese analogy are not
merely a rhetorical matter, either, for Ott reported lack of common
ground between herself and her Pyrenean hosts in discussions bear-
ing on ovulation. Such remarkable dépaysement suggests cultural con-
sensus is not to be taken for granted—even with contemporary fellow
Europeans, even concerning prosaic themes. And, since Ott was in the
process of grasping an ancient model of procreation, the issue arises
of what its underlying axioms might be.1
Nicole Belmont points out that the long-lived success of the cheese
analogy owes to its concrete representation of the forming of shapely
matter out of unformed substance. (Hence, French fromage comes
from formage, which goes back to Latin forma, “shape.”) Interestingly,
this makes the cheese analogy of conception appropriate to also rep-
resent demiurgic creation. For instance, Carlo Ginzburg reports that a
miller in 16th-century Friuli maintained before astonished inquisitors
that the world came out of primordial chaos much as a cheese comes
out of curdled milk. Moreover, Aristotle’s use of the cheese analogy
articulates physiology and cosmology. Let us heed the old master’s
lesson.2
Aristotelian Conceptions
In Generation of Animals, Aristotle resorts to the cheese metaphor
of conception while discussing the essence of menstrual blood and
semen. He maintains that semen is concocted blood—therefore, de-
finable as “the ultimate gain drawn from the nutriment”—whereas
menstrual fluid is “semen not in a pure state but in need of working
F
16. 3. Feminine Primacy
he notion that men will (if only symbolically) partake of women’s
fecund stuff for added vitality provides food for thought. Anthro-
pologists have long ago realized that institutionalized attempts by
men figuratively to fulfill female functions, as famously performed in
Melanesian societies (among others), reveal that men’s social author-
ity involves symbolical appropriation of feminine power. One step
ahead, this discussion suggests that masculine social domination
compensates for the perceived vulnerability of males according to a
trans-cultural construct of fungible body fluids. In terms of this repre-
sentation, dainty masculinity is an elaboration of primal femaleness,
which is both the bedrock of maleness and a perennial threat to it. A
number of southern-European mores become intelligible in this light.
Machismo, Female Primacy
José Cutileiro, working in Portugal, mentions that full manly
status hinges on facing up to marriage and its considerable risks,
which boil down to keeping tight control over feminine “vice.”
Brandes explains the kindred Andalusian male view: “all women are
seductresses, possessed of insatiable, lustful appetites,” and “it is the
husband’s prime responsibility to control the conduct of his wife and
daughters.” This manly task is dangerous, adds Pitt-Rivers, insofar as
wives have the “power” to “ruin” their men. This may be understood
in two basic senses. First, Brandes points out that wives, if unre-
stricted, would sap the husbands’ vital strength to satisfy their vora-
cious sexual appetite. Second, any feminine sexual misbehavior
would compromise her male protector’s moral standing. The two di-
mensions of male “ruin” by means of women amount to Brandes’ as-
sessment that men “feel severely threatened and powerless when con-
fronted by women. They consider women potentially dangerous.”1
Juliet du Boulay provides a clue as to the nature of this innate
power of womanhood in her statement that the Greek wife performs a
twofold role, “both physical and metaphysical, for it is she who
makes the house a sanctuary for the living and a memorial for the
dead, while she herself is the matrix from which succeeding genera-
tions spring.” In other words, it is in motherhood that women show
their “powerful” dimension, the obverse of which is the implied rep-
resentation of “men as helpless, dependent on women, inadequate,
T
19. 4. Lunar Births
he quest for the cultural logic underlying apparently fortuitous
data often recalls puzzle solving insofar as one has to patiently fit
pieces together, then figure out whether and how the emerging con-
figuration accommodates further stray pieces, and so on. For exam-
ple, one might note that the axiom that the dead are to leave this
world with feet first mirrors the fact that newborns normally come
headfirst. Then, in light of such symmetry between newborns and
corpses, one could recall the resilient custom of bathing babies as they
reach this world and of washing the dead as they leave it. And this
inverted parallelism summons to mind the pervasive notion that
newborns resemble old people, whom, in turn, supposedly revert to
infancy—as Shakespeare puts it, “old fools are babes again” (King
Lear 1.3.20).
Taken together, such data appear to hint the pervasive notion that
the dead and newborns converge in an endless cycle; that, in other
words, old people revert to being babies insofar as newborns are re-
cycled elders. Once this cyclic frame of mind is acknowledged, one is
bound to notice the fact that it is always women who wash newborns
and corpses. And you might remark that such exclusive feminine
dominion over cyclic passages between this world and the other-
world befits the notion that women themselves cycle along with the
moon. This, in turn, draws attention to the perennial link between la-
dies and flowers, which (as we are to see presently) are constant
metaphors for cyclic blood—hence, yet another link to lunar revolu-
tions.
The following discussion follows this analogical trail backwards,
as it were, starting with flowers and cyclic blood in order to grasp the
pervasive lunar symbolism linking together newborns and the dead.
Spiny Flowers
The theme of Little Red Riding Hood (ATU 333) depicts a girl, con-
stantly associated with red and flowers, who infamously chances to
be deflowered and devoured by a wolf she joins in bed. The flowery
leitmotiv runs across literary as well as oral versions of this well-
known tale. Thus, Perrault’s Le Petit Chaperon rouge portrays a red-
hooded girl who makes nosegays “out of little flowers she found,”
and an Alpine variant maps the name Chaperon rouge to the idea that
T
20. 5. Cosmic Cycles
nterestingly, the examined notion that ancestors reincarnate in their
descendants clarifies a number of obscure pieces of folklore. Take,
for instance, the Alsatian maxim that a death within the family paves
the way for a new birth, or the Norman adage that each birth entails
the short-term death of an elder in the same family. Considered to-
gether, these statements imply correlation between births and deaths
in a given family, which brings home the principle that—as Jacques
Gélis puts it in his anthropological study of births in early modern
France—“newborns bring back to life the soul of ancestors.” In his
study, Gélis pinpoints a three-generation pattern whereby reproduc-
ing adults recycle, as it were, their ancestors in their children. And he
notes that this cyclic pattern supposes a fixed amount of souls dy-
namically distributed between this world and the otherworld, so that
all exchanges among the two realms happen in terms of “life for life,
soul for soul.”1
Such economy of limited souls underlies the widespread, cross-
cultural phenomenon that social anthropologist A. R. Radcliffe-Brown
called “the merging of alternate generations,” which hinges on the
notion that “one generation is replaced in course of time by the gen-
eration of their grandchildren.” In his words, this pattern supposes
the belief “that in some sense the grandparent is ‘reincarnated’ in a
grandchild”; hence, Radcliffe-Brown points out that in East-African
societies age sets are “arranged in cycles,” so that a son’s son will
likely belong to the same one as his father’s father. Similarly, the pan-
European custom of bestowing the personal names of grandparents
on grandchildren suggests coalescence between alternate generations;
and the custom of naming newborns after recently deceased kin—so
as to, as they used to say in Florence, “remake” the dead in the new-
born—suggests recycling of souls within the lineage.2
This chapter intends to convey a sense of the actual paths of the
dead in cyclic cosmos. If we consider Plato’s statement that the Demi-
urge created “souls equal in number to the stars and assigned each
soul to a star” (Timaeus 41d–42c), along with manifold folk statements
expressing the notion that stars in the sky correspond to souls (and
shooting stars presage some change in the condition of souls), we
glimpse the notion that cycles of soul have a cosmic span. Of course,
folk statements on the otherworld are seldom clear-cut (for they come
I
24. 6. The Madonna and the Cuckoo
he pretext for this discussion is an intriguing discrepancy I found
in the northern Portuguese sanctuary of Senhora da Abadia, Our
Lady of the Abbey. The main statue of this old Marian sanctuary,
probably dating from the early fourteenth century, is a depiction of
the “Madonna and Child” theme. The standing Virgin dresses in a red
tunic bearing floral motifs, partly covered by a blue mantle. In her
right hand, the Madonna used to hold a flower stem that has long
since been broken; in her left arm, she holds her baby. The child Jesus,
conspicuously blond, in turn, uses his left hand seemingly to feed a
golden bird resting on his lap.
As if to emphasize the importance of this bird motif, another
statue standing on a lateral altar, dating from the nineteenth century,
offers the corresponding image of St. Joseph holding Jesus in his left
arm, the child in turn holding in his left hand a golden bird that he
feeds on greenery with his other hand. Given the well-known role of
the Holy Spirit, often represented as a dove, in the begetting of Jesus,
the identification of the birds in both statues might seem obvious. But
even though the bird on the main altar might be a dove, the bird on
the lateral statue definitely does not look like one. This discrepancy,
avowedly a subjective impression of strangeness, has provided the
pretext for the following exploration.
Birds
It is important to stress that I have not been able to clear the mys-
tery by asking. So far, all informants who seem to care about the iden-
tity of the birds have told me they must be doves, since “the scrip-
tures” mention such a bird. And although not one informant has dis-
agreed with my remark that the feathered biped on the lateral statue
does not look like a dove, some locals have suggested that this must
be the artist’s fault. Given, however, that nothing else in the statue in
question is faulty or undetermined, the consensual fact that the artist
fashioned a bird that does not look like a dove suggests the intention
of depicting something else altogether. While I cannot be sure that my
informants were actually withholding information concerning the
birds’ identity, I did get this impression after talking to two knowl-
edgeable men at the sanctuary. Could it be, I have then asked myself,
that the mysterious bird has become for some reason unpalatable;
T
25. 7. Jesus Christ in Light of Folklore
he point that the cultural construct one calls “reality” is semiotic
in essence, and that even tiny faults in the conceptual order of
things can disclose general aspects of worldview, admits a wide range
of illustrations. Leo Steinberg’s depiction of his fateful visit to an art
museum is among the most revealing examples I might think of:
Many years ago, wandering with a medical friend through the Walters Art
Gallery, Baltimore, I noticed for the first time the Christ Child’s erection in a
Renaissance painting. Half incredulous, I asked my companion: “Is this
child’s penis erect?” The good doctor allowed an indulgent smile and mut-
tered, as he quickly turned his back on the picture, “It happens.” But why,
asked the pest in me, why is it happening to the Christ Child? I must have
asked it inaudibly, for there came no reply.1
This sudden realization of incongruity is one fine illustration of the
sort of fault in the seamless order of things that could reveal hitherto
ignored mental landscapes. Memorably, the experience has led Stein-
berg to bring out of oblivion the theological meanings attached to the
display of the Christ’s genitals in a trend of Renaissance art. Let us
abide with this art historian and learn what sorts of meanings might
have been attached to this surprising trend.
Gendering Jesus
According to Steinberg, display of the Christ’s genitals in Renais-
sance art was an attempt by artists to grapple with contemporary in-
carnational theology—hinging on the assumption that the supreme
feat of God was thorough humanation—in terms of Renaissance natu-
ralism, which required artists to chart bodies in full. Attempts to de-
pict complete incarnation in accordance with naturalism would have
caused the male member to become “a theological datum, participant
in God’s anthropophany.” Hence, the revealed penis in Renaissance
art would have symbolized the “most astonishing of all things,” to
talk like Thomas Aquinas (CG 4.27.1): the notion that “the true
God…has become true man.”2
Specifically, Steinberg shows in fascinating detail that symbolic
depictions of the fleshiest part of the Incarnate’s flesh made use of
two running homologies: between mortification of the penis (as in
circumcision) and the Savior’s passion on the one hand, and between
T
26. Epilogue
n looking back after the main task is finished, the benefit of hind-
sight suggests that all chapters in this book (diverse as they are)
deal with mental landscapes hinging on cyclical assumptions. This
realization offers food for thought insofar as cyclical worldview is
more than a topic—it is a frame of mind endowed with specific prop-
erties. Dundes has pointed out that modern Western culture tends to
value facing a theme “squarely,” by means of “straightforward” ar-
guments (while mistrusting “circular reasoning” and “going around
in circles”), and he noted that emphasis on thinking “logically, that is,
lineally,” causes “repeated failure” in understanding the outlook of
traditional cultures. In the next few pages I venture some tentative
thoughts on why cyclical mindsets prove problematic to the contem-
porary beholder, and why they are pervasive.1
One basic trait of cyclic Weltanschauung is aptly conveyed in the
expression of “limited good,” which George Foster coined to express
the assumption (ubiquitous in pre-modern societies) that all valued
things in life exist in finite quantity, so that overall “good”—health,
wealth, fertility, and so on—can only be divided, not augmented.
Crucially (but this Foster failed to realize), such closed systems hinge
on supposed interaction between visible and invisible aspects of real-
ity. Overall limited good implies tradeoff between this world and the
otherworld, which has implications in the way causality itself is de-
fined. Socrates explains this point by means of the notion that “the
living have come from the dead no less than the dead from the liv-
ing,” which entails imagining a “process of generation between the
two sets of opposites, going round in a set of cycle.” This supposes
that there is only so much soul in the universe—a view that entails
acknowledging death is a necessary prerequisite to life, for “if living
things came from other living things, and the living things died, what
possible means could prevent their number from being exhausted by
death?” One corollary of this stance is “a necessary law that every-
thing which has an opposite is generated from that opposite and from
no other source” (Plato, Phaedo 70–72).2
It is plain, then, that cyclic models contravene linear logic and its
law of noncontradiction. Whereas a lineal point of view places new-
borns and old people at the farthest reaches of the life span, a cyclical
perspective brings opposites into one another. Consequently, any
O
27.
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45. 188 Archeology of Intangible Heritage
Krappe, Alexander H., 92, 105, 130
L
Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy, 47
Laqueur, Thomas, 15, 28, 34, 40, 47,
48, 49, 118, 131
Lawrence, Denise L., 43, 49, 50
Le Goff, Jacques, 105
Leach, Edmund R., 16, 28, 29
Lebrun, François, 72, 86
Lemaître, Georges, 165, 169
Leonardo da Vinci, 36, 47, 48, 168
Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 16, 29, 118, 129,
130, 131, 165, 167, 168, 169
Lienhardt, Godfrey, 156
M
Macrobius, 39, 48, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106,
120, 131
Madonna. See Mary, Virgin
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 86, 126, 133
Manilius, 39, 48
Mary, Virgin
and bird, 124–28
and blood. See Blood
and grottoes, 112–15
and milk, 52, 139, 144
and roses, 1, 142–44, 158
and sap, 119
and snakes, 113, 115–19, 117, 119,
145, 150
and tarantulas, 151
chromatics of, 52, 143
impregnation through the ear, 117,
118
in art, 111, 116–19, 120, 122, 131,
142, 143, 148, 150, 158
New Eve, 115, 117, 145, 150
Mattéi, Jean-François, 79, 87, 88
Méchin, Colette, 44, 49, 50
Mencej, Mirjam, 76, 87, 107, 130
Menéndez Pidal, Ramón, 50
Menstruation. See Blood
Milk
and sap, 13, 24, 26, 39, 54, 119, 120
and semen, 12–14, 17, 18, 19, 28, 40,
54, 55, 53–58, 56, 59, 101, 144
and snakes. See Snake
and soul, 38–39, 103–4
and the Milky Way. See Milky Way
and the moon, 19
and the Virgin Mary. See Mary,
Virgin
and womb blood. See Blood
animals’, 12, 13, 25, 41, 57
celestial, 37, 38, 39, 40, 46, 99, 101,
103, 104, 120
curdled, 33, 34, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42,
44, 47
kinship, 12
mother’s, 13, 14, 17, 35, 36, 37, 40,
52, 54, 55, 56, 101, 120, 137
sea of, 37, 48
Milky Way, 39, 98, 99, 100, 101, 106,
120. See also Souls. See also Milk
Milton, John, 66, 83, 130
Monmouth, Geoffrey, 20, 30, 113, 129
Moon
and births, 68–70, 85
and cows, 69–70
and horns, 19–21, 22, 70, 116, 117
and Juno, 68–70
and marrow, 19–21
and snakes. See Snake
and souls. See Souls
and women, 68. See also Snake and
women. See also Snake and
moon
and the Virgin Mary. See Mary,
Virgin
46. Index 189
O
O’Neill, Brian Juan, 49, 50
Obeyesekere, Gananath, 29, 84
Onians, Richard Broxton, 16, 17, 27,
29, 79, 87, 88
Oppitz, Michael, 29
Ott, 41–44
Ott, Sandra, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 45, 47,
49, 50, 64, 68, 83, 84, 85, 86
P
Paradise
earthly, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97
heavenly, 91, 94
Paré, Ambroise, 68, 70, 84, 85
Pedroso, Zófimo Consiglieri, 84, 87
Penzer, N. M., 83
Pérouas, Louis, 105
Perrault, Charles, 17, 63, 65, 82, 83
Pina-Cabral, João de, 60
Pitt-Rivers, Julian, 7, 8, 9, 10, 26, 27,
51, 52, 58, 156
Plato, 3, 15, 36, 38, 39, 47, 58, 71, 73–
80, 77, 78, 79, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89–100,
92, 97, 105, 106, 126, 163, 164, 165,
167
Pliny the Elder, 33, 39, 48, 67, 80, 84,
101, 102, 106, 107, 120, 124, 131
Plutarch, 23, 25, 31, 69, 85
Pócs, Éva, 32, 85
Poison. See Tarantula. See Snake. See
Blood
Porter, Eliot, 157
Praneuf, Michel, 31, 32
Propp, Vladimir, 116, 117, 130, 133
Proust, Marcel, 1, 3
R
Rabelais, François, 58, 67, 124, 125,
128, 132, 143, 149, 157, 158, 159
Radcliffe-Brown, A. R., 89, 104, 105
Rank, Otto, 126, 127, 133
Reingold, Edward M., 131
Renard, Marcel, 69, 70, 85
Rey-Henningsen, Marisa, 84
Roman Festivals
Floralia, 65
Lupercalia, 23, 24
Nonae Caprotinae, 24
Roses. See Flowers
Rydberg, Viktor, 78, 87
S
Sagan, Carl, 127, 133
Saintyves, Pierre, 19, 30, 88, 158
Sauneron, Serge, 28, 29
Schmitt, Jean-Claude, 141, 157
Schulenburg, W., 132
Sébillot, Paul, 30, 87, 106, 131, 132
Serpent. See Snake
Shakespeare, William, 1, 8, 9, 10, 11,
13, 14, 15, 22, 27, 38, 63, 64, 65, 80,
124, 128
Silva, Francisco Vaz da, 32, 48, 83, 84,
85, 86, 87, 107, 129, 130, 133, 156,
158, 168
Singh, Simon, 166, 169
Snake. See also Dragon
ancestor, 46, 50
and birthing, 70, 72
and blood. See Blood
and hair, 67–68, 84
and Jesus Christ. See Christ, Jesus
and milk, 54
and soul, 79
and springtime, 102, 107
and St. Paul, 152–54
47. 190 Archeology of Intangible Heritage
and the moon, 32, 68, 116, 117, 144,
149
and tree, 146–47, 149
and women, 66–69, 83, 150, 160
and Eve, 66, 83, 115–19, 130, 144,
145, 147, 148–49, 150, 159
and the Virgin Mary. See Mary,
Virgin
chthonic, 68, 70, 82
crucified, 145–46, 149, 153, 155
poisonous, 66, 68, 83, 149–52, 154,
160
sloughing, 26, 68, 70, 72, 85, 86, 113,
115, 119, 149, 151, 152, 154, 156
Soul birds
cuckoo, 1, 7, 9, 11, 20–22, 24, 25, 26,
30, 102, 104, 107, 122–26, 127,
128, 131, 132
dove, 102, 104, 111, 112, 117, 118,
119, 120, 122, 123, 127, 128
stork, 1, 24, 25, 102, 103, 123, 126,
127
swan, 125, 127
Souls
and birds, 105, 123, 125
and blood. See Blood
and breath, 79, 80–81
and cows, 114
and marrow, 38, 39
and milk. See Milk
and seed, 75, 102
and stars, 89, 95, 97–100, 106, 120
and the ecliptic, 98, 99, 100, 101,
102, 103, 104
and the Milky Way, 39, 97–100,
101, 106, 120
and the moon, 80–81, 80
and water, 76–80, 76, 87, 101, 103
in the otherworld, 71, 89–100, 94,
95, 97, 100, 104
reincarnating, 71, 89, 90, 91, 95, 98,
99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 127, 128
released, 91, 95, 100, 104, 115, 121,
129
shamanic, 75
transmigration of, 106
St. Augustine, 118, 130
St. Isidore, 9, 27
St. James, Way of, 99
St. Paul, 152–54
St. Thomas Aquinas, 135, 143, 156, 158
Steinberg, Leo, 118, 119, 131, 135, 136,
137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 146, 156, 157,
158, 159
Stewart, J. A., 87, 92, 105, 106
Stork. See Soul birds
Swan. See Soul birds
T
Taboada, Jesús, 49
Tarantula, 151, 153, 160. See also St.
Paul. See also Mary, Virgin
Tenèze, Marie-Louise, 157
Testart, Alain, 130, 149, 159
Tilbury, Gervais of, 139, 145, 149, 157,
158, 159
Toporov, Vladimir, 114, 129
Trexler, Richard C., 141, 157
U
Uther, Hans-Jörg, 132, 157
V
van Buitenan, J. A. B., 48
van Gennep, Arnold, 22, 30, 31, 71, 85,
86, 87, 103, 106, 107, 114, 129, 158
Varagine, Jacopo da, 114, 117, 118,
120, 121, 122, 123, 129, 130, 131, 132,
145, 158
48. Index 191
Varro, 19, 30, 68, 85, 102, 107, 120
Vasconcelos, José Leite de, 30, 84, 85,
86, 88, 107, 122, 124, 131, 132
Vassas, Claudine, 11, 27, 42, 43, 44, 45,
46, 49, 50, 68, 84
Veiga de Oliveira, Ernesto, 160
Verdier, Yvonne, 32, 44, 50, 68, 71, 76,
77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 87
Veronica, 139, 140, 144, 145, 149, 150,
157
Vicente, Gil, 76, 87
Virey, Julien-Joseph, 14, 28
Virgil, 39, 75, 76, 77, 79, 87, 91, 93, 97,
101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 120, 131
Virgin Mary. See Mary, Virgin
Vulpesco, Michel, 24, 30, 31, 132
W
Werewolf, 25, 26, 31, 32
Wine. See Blood
Wondertales
ATU 333, Little Red Riding Hood, 63
ATU 410, Sleeping Beauty, 65
ATU 433B, King Lindorm, 25, 46, 72
ATU 507, The Monster’s Bride, 66
ATU 510A, Cinderella, 76, 141
ATU 706D, St. Wilgefortis and Her
Beard, 141
Y
Yoyotte, Jean, 28
Z
Ziolkowski, Jan M., 28
Zodiac, 39, 96, 98. See also Ecliptic
49. It is remarkablehow often we considercertainconstructs
in other
peoples'worldviewto be "myths,"while in our own casewe regard
equallyarbitraryassumptions
as inherentto the natureof things.As
everyanthropologistknows,one'smost cherished
culturalassump-
tions tend to remain implicit;in other words, worldview is largely
unconscious.
Thisbook explores
the possibility
of plumbingobscure
aspects
of one'sown culturein orderto assess
what somemight call
(regardingother cultures)the mythic underpinningsof worldview.
Seven
explorations
in folkloreand ethnography
exhumea conceptual
heritagethat still influences
perception,
albeit in unconscious
ways.
Thisarcheology
of intangibleheritageprovides
the sort of breakin
intellectual
routinethat allowsusto look anew at familiarthings.
Francisco Vaz da Silva teachesanthropologyand folklore at Insti-
tuto Superior
dasCiências
do Trabalho
e da Empresa
in Lisbon,
where
he alsoreceived
hisPh.D.
Hehaspublished
papers
on symbolic
folklore
and wondertalesin professional
journalsin Europeand America.His
publicationsinclude Metamorphosis:The Dynamicsof Symbolismin
EuropeanFairy Tales(Peter Lang, 2002),and a forthcoming seven-
volumeLibraryof EuropeanFairyTales
(in Portuguese).
www.peterlang.com
ISBN Ì?8--1,-r.tllr-041,8-3
llllllil
8143