APPLIED SCIENCE I, FDP 103 for university students
1. APPLIED SCIENCE I, FDP
103
MODULE OBJECTIVES
(a)Understand the relevance of science to the programme
(b). Understand the fundamentals of science and define
basic terminologies, Periodic Table and Chemical Bonding
(c)State the S.I units of physical quantities and define them.
2. MODULE OBJECTIVES
• (d) Explain the differences between plant and animal cells.
• (e) Understand the origin and chemical composition of wood.
3. MODULE OBJECTIVES - CONTINUES
• (f) Apply the knowledge of polymer chemistry (Monomers and
Polymers) to understand the build-up of wood for interior works.
• (g) Explain the effect of moisture on wood as a material
• (h) Write the effects of heat and temperature on wood and apply it to
wood usage.
• (i) Understand the Basics of Organic Chemistry.
4. OBJECTIVE a).
• DEFINITIONS OF BASIC TERMINOLOGIES :
• Atoms are smallest particles of matter with sub-particles namely protons,
neutrons in the core and electrons surrounding the core in their respective
shells.
• Protons – They are sub-particles of the atom and is positively charged,
located at the nucleus and has mass.
• Neutrons – They are sub-particles of the atom and has no charge, located
at the nucleus. They have mass.
• Electrons : These are negatively charged sub-particles of the atom, which
have negligible mass and are found in the surrounding orbitals; they are
held to the nucleus by an electrostatic attraction.
5. OBJECTIVE a). ----
• Illustration of the structures of atoms of the various elements:
• EXERCISE : (a). Explain why Sodium as an element is very reactive but Neon
is not ?
• (b). Illustrate the reaction that takes place between Na and Florine
• ( c). Why is the Periodic Table so named?
6. OBJECTIVE a). Continues
• Nucleons- They are sub-particles in the core/ nucleus of the atom i.e
both protons and neutrons in the core of the atom.
• Mass Number : This is the sum total of the nucleons in the core of the
atom ; or the sum of the protons and neutrons in the core of the
atom.
• Atomic Number : This is equal the number of protons in the atom.
• Ions : These are atoms that have either gained or lost electrons. An
atom loses electron(s) to become a positive ion or CATION, and gain
electron(s) to become a negative ion or ANION. Electronegativity
describes the tendency of an atom to gain an electron.
7. OBJECTIVE a). Continues
• ISOTOPE : Atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. Eg. Carbon – 14 ; Carbon-12 :- All have same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.
• Element : An element is a pure substance consisting only of atoms that
all have the same numbers of protons in their atomic nuclei. Note that
chemical elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
• Molecule : Is a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest
identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and still
retain the composition and chemical properties of that substance. Eg.
O2 ( homonuclear) ; H2O ( heteronuclear).
8. MORE ABOUT ELEMENTS
• Elements are classified as metals, non-metals and semi-metals
• Elements which are metals are found on the left hand side and the
middle of the periodic table.
• Elements which are non-metals are found on the right hand side of
the periodic table.
• Semi-metals are elements whose properties are intermediate
between metals and non-metals; and occupy the region between
metals and non-metals on the periodic table.
• CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS and MIXTURES are not metals or non-
metals.
9. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NON-METAL ( ON
THE PERIOIC TABLE).
• Non-metals are generally unreactive
• They may react with oxygen in air, dilute acids, dilute alkalis, and
water at higher temperatures.
10. OBJECTIVE a). Continues
• THE PERIODIC TABLE : Why is it so named?
• It is so named because it is the arrangement of elements in
increasing order of atomic number ; those found along the horizontal
row fall into the same period whilst those that fall within a vertical
column fall into a group and share similar chemical properties . The
periodic table contains valuable information about specific elements
and can also help identify trends in atomic size, melting point,
chemical reactivity, and other properties.
• ASSIGNMENT : Draw the periodic table showing the first 20 elements.
11. OBJECTIVE a). Continues
• CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS & SOLUTIONS :
• Chemical Compounds - It is a chemical substance composed of many
identical molecules composed of atoms from more than one element
held together by chemical bonds. N.B based on this a molecule
consisting of only one element is not a compound. Eg. Of
Compounds- Water, Hydrogen Peroxide ( H2O2), Sodium Chloride,
Baking Soda and Octane ( C8H18 ).
• SOLUTION : Solutions are homogenous mixtures ; particles of one
substance ( the solute) are mixed together with the particles of
another substance ( the solvent) – NaCl in water. NaCl is solute, water
as solvent.
12. • ATOMIC BONDING ( CHEMICAL BONDING) :
- A chemical bond is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or
molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The
bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of
electrons as in covalent bonds.
- NB. VALENCE – The valence of an atom is the number of electrons in
an atom that participate in bonding or chemical reaction. If an atom
has a valence of zero, the element is INERT / NOBLE GAS ( non-
reactive) eg. Argon which has the electronic structure - 2,8.8
13. • TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING :
- 2 main types ; PRIMARY and SECONDARY
- PRIMARY BONDS : They are relatively strong bonds between
adjacent atoms resulting from the transfer or sharing of outer orbital
electrons. These include IONIC, COVALENT and METALLIC BONDS.
- SECONDARY BONDS : This type of bonding is inter-molecular, and
results from molecules or atoms in which there is either an induced
or permanent dipole-dipole attraction with each other. Eg.
HYDROGEN BONDING and van der Waals Forces
14. PRIMARY BONDS – 1.//IONIC BONDING
• A chemical bond is a force that holds ions, molecules or atoms
together. A bond is formed so that each atom acquires a stable
electronic configuration similar to that of a noble gas.
• IONIC COMPOUNDS are formed by the attraction of positive and
negative ions. An electrostatic force of attraction between the positive
and negative ions provides the binding force that holds the ions
chemically together. The electrostatic binding force is called an IONIC
BOND or ELECTROVALENT BOND.
• The formation of ions Na ― Na + + e- Cl + e- ― Cl-
• The overall reaction equation Na + Cl ― NaCl
15. IONIC BONDING
• PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS : They are hard, crystalline,
brittle solid; conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution.
• They have high melting and boiling points, high heats of fusion and
vapourisation ; some are soluble in water
16. - 2.//COVALENT BONDING
• A covalent bonding is formed when a covalent bond forms between
two or more atoms of non-metals that are unable to form stable ions
by gaining or losing electron(s). These atoms achieve a stable
configuration similar to the NOBLE GASES, by sharing one or more
pairs of electrons.
• Unlike ionic compounds, which contain aggregates of ions, covalent
compounds are made up of molecules ; they are molecular
substances, with low boiling and melting points; low heats of fusion &
vaporization.
17. COVALENT BONDING
• PROPERTIES : Some are gases or liquids at room temperature; many
do not conduct electricity either in the molten state or aqueous
solution. Many are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
• A covalent bond formed between two atoms is sometimes shown as
a short line drawn between the symbols of the atoms : H―H and
Cl―Cl. In an oxygen molecule, O2, each atom donates two electrons
to form two covalent bonds. This is shown as two lines, O=O . In
nitrogen molecule, N2 , triple covalent bonds are found : N≡N
• EXERCISE : State FIVE differences between covalent and ionic
Compounds.
18. - 3.//METALLIC BONDS
• Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that arises from the
electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons and
positively charged metal ions. It may be described as the sharing of
free electrons among a structure of positively charged ions. Metallic
bonding loosely bound and mobile electrons surround the positive
nuclei of metal atoms.
• Metallic bonding is responsible for many physical properties of
metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and electrical
conductivity, opacity, and luster.
20. ASSIGNMENT I
• (a). Sodium Chloride, water, Nitrogen, Sodium, Hydogen Sulphide, Iron (II)
Sulphide, Silicon, Chlorine.
Which of the above substances are made up of (i) ions (ii) atoms (iii)
Molecules ( 8 mks).
• (b). Naphthalene ( mothballs) sublimes at room temperature. What type of
chemical bonding is it exhibiting? (2mks).
• (c). What type of bonding results if
-i. Carbon combines with oxygen ( 1mk)
-ii. H combines with S ( 1mk)
- iii. Cu combines with oxygen. ( 1mk).
21. ASSIGNMENT
• (a). (i). State and explain the nature of the THREE types of the primary
bonds.(12mks)
• (ii). What are the differences between Hydrogen Bonds and the
van der Waals Forces. ( 8 Mks).
22. SECONDARY BONDS – i// HYDROGEN
BONDING
• H-bond is as a result of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially
positive H-ion ( H d+) of one H2O molecule and partially negative O-
ion (Od-) of another H2O molecule; it is therefore an INTER-
MOLECULAR BOND ; is observed in drying wood which leads to
increased Strength Properties; it is a weak force, however it is stronger
than the van der Waals Forces.
• The relatively strong H-bonding between water molecules is that
which make water have surface tension and boiling points higher than
those of many organic liquids of comparable molecular weight.
• Heating water to boiling points breaks this inter-molecular H-Bonds.
23. SECONDARY BONDS – van der Waals BONDS
• van der Waals Forces is as a result of dipole-dipole interaction
between a partially positive ( d+) portion of a molecule and partially
negative (d-) of another molecule in close proximity; even though
weak, it ensures the binding/holding contact glue surfaces; it is
comparatively a weaker force to the H- Bond.
• These forces can dramatically change the properties of certain
materials. Eg. Graphite and diamond have very different mechanical
properties as a result of this.
24. OBJ. 2 – SOME S. I UNITS OF PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
TERM UNIT DEFINITION
Force Newton (N) and is the force which when applied to a mass of 1Kg
gives it an acceleration of 1m/ sec2
Power Watts (W ) it is the work done when a force of 1N moves through
a distance of 1m for a given time of 1 second.
Weigh
t
Newton (N) ( SAME AS Force above )
Work Joules (J) defined as the work done when a force of 1N moves
through a distance 1m.
25. TERM UNIT DEFINITION
Electric current Ampere (A) A current of one ampere
means one coulomb of
electrical charge flows
each second.
Temperature Kelvin ( K) ; Degree
Celsius ( C)
Volume
Length
Cubic Centimetre (cm3)
Metre
28. COMPARISM BETWEEN PLANT AND
ANIMAL CELLS
• ORGANNELS THEY SHARE IN COMMON :
- Nucleus : Contains the genetic materials and also controls all activities
in the cell.
- Cytoplasm : The medium in which the cell contents are suspended.
- Cytoskeleton : The structural framework of the cell and serves as the
scaffold that determines the cell shape and the general organization
of the cytoplasm.
- Cell membrane ( Plasma membrane) : A semipermeable membrane
that controls movement of substances in and out of the cell.
29. COMMON ORGANELLES
- Mitochondrion : The organelle in which respiration takes place. Known as
the POWER HOUSE.
- Lysosomes : The organelles that contain digestive enzymes, and are
responsible for breaking down excess or worn-out cell parts. They take care
of invading bacteria and viruses into the cell. Also known as the SUICIDE
BAG.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum ( ER): Both the Smooth ER and Rough ER serve as
transport pathways for materials inside and outside the cell. The rough ER
serves as a platform that supports the RIBOSOMES. It also transport the
PROTEINS produced by the ribosomes.
- Golgi Bodies ( Golgi Apparatus) : The golgi bodies are responsible for the
production and repair of the cell membrane.
30. COMMON ORGANELLES
• Nucleus : This is what controls all the cellular activities. It contains the
CHROMOSOMES and NUCLEOLUS. Chromosomes contain genes
which are responsible for inheritance of characters from parents.
Nucleolus manufactures the RIBOSOMES.
• RIBOSOMES : They are composed of RNA and PROTEIN. They are the
sites of protein synthesis.
31. NON – COMMON ORGANELLES
• CENTRIOLES : Small, rod-like structures found in pairs near the
nuclear membrane of most ANIMAL cells. They separate and move to
opposite poles at early stages of cell division and are believed to be
responsible for the formation of spindle fibres.
• VACUOLES : Fluid filled spaces in the cytoplasm bounded by a single
membrane- TONOPLAST. Plant cells have LARGE PERMANENT ones
whilst Animal cells have SMALLER TEMPORARY ones.
• CHLOROPLAST : They are found only in green parts of PLANTS. They
contain the green pigment CHLOROPHYLL.
• CELLULOSE CELL WALL : A structure surrounding the cell membrane.
32. SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELLS
S/N ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
1 Does not have shape Has definite shape
2 No Cellulose cell wall outside the cell
membrane
cellulose cell wall present
3 Small temporary vacuole present Contain Large permanent vacuoles
4 No chloroplasts neither chlorophyll Possess chloroplasts, therefore chlorophyll
5 Store glycogen as carbohydrate food
reserve.
Store starch as carbohydrate food reserve
33. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF CELLS IN
LIVING ORGANISMS
• Group of cells that are specialized to perform the same function is
called a TISSUE.
• An ORGAN is a group of different tissues which perform the same
function or functions.
• Two or more organs working together to perform a specific function
form an ORGAN SYSTEM.
• Organ systems are co-ordinated or work together in such a way that
a LIVING ORGANISM is formed.
34. WOOD ; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
• MAJOR CONSTITUENTS :
• Lignin may be used as raw material for chemicals such as vanillin; environmentally sustainable
dust suppression agent for roads; used as fuel as it yields more energy when burnt; source of
carbon sequestration.
• Cellulose is used in the production of paper and pulp ; hydrolysed to make glucose and sucrose;
useful in the production of cellulose-acetate; useful in the production of cloth, film, explosives
and plastic products.
• Hemi-cellulose is hydrolysed to simple sugars; used in the production of furfurals
• MINOR CONSTITUENTS :
• Extractives such as- resins and oils, phenolics, tannins- are toxic to wood pest; tannins are used in
the dyeing industry; terpenes are used in producing turpentine; gums used in producing
adhesives.
• Starch attract fungi attack( negative importance).
• Silica in wood blunt knives, but may improve the value for measurement of Hardness; Potassium
in ash serve as fertilizer/ plant nutrient
35. MONOMERS AND POLYMERS
• Monomers and Polymers: Monomers are smaller units of a large
molecule/ macro-molecule; the latter is formed as a result of linkages
between the former. Eg. Ethene. whilst a Polymer is formed when a
large number of monomers are linked together, usually by the
condensation process, over and over again in a long chain, eg.
Polyethene.
• POLYMERISATION : 2 METHODS -
-Addition reactions & Condensation : Water molecule ( H2O) is given
out in condensation polymersation, whilst no product is given out in
the addition polymerization.
36. ADHESIVES
• Substances that are used to stick materials together.
• Adhesives such as white glue, animal glues, polyurethanes,
urethanes, acrylics, cyanoacrylates and epoxies are commonly used
• Some adhesives such as epoxies, cyanoacrylates, urethanes, acrylics
can carry significant stresses and are also recommendable for exterior
use.
37. FINISHES
• Finishing Materials are the most visible and, making good decisions
on such finish materials can make critical difference to the satisfaction
of the customer. The selected finish plays a key role for the intended
use, as well as providing the structural support and prep work the
materials require for good performance.
• Examples of finishing materials for furniture include paint, plastic
laminates, vanishes and lacquer
38. TYPES OF PLASTICS
• THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
• THERMOPLASTIC PLASTICS
• Unique properties of plastics ;
-Despite being lighter, are surprisingly strong having high strength to weight ratios
comparable to that of wood and even metals.
-They are stable and do not move and therefore drawer rails are often preferred to
be in plastics than wood.
-Furniture made of thermosetting plastics could withstand higher temperatures
-Plastics are very attractive engineering materials
-They do not rust even when close to the marine environment.
-Plastics can take many fanciful colours that adds to their attraction.
39. 2 TYPES OF PLASTICS
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
THERMOSETTING THERMOPLASTICS
-Plastics which when heated
and is set cannot be
melted again.
-Chemically -unreactive once
set.; hence not recyclable .
Eg.Polyimides. Melamine
resin, epoxy resin, acrylics,
polyurethanes.
-Plastics which can be heated
and set can be re-heated
again and again.
-They are chemically reactive
after setting
Eg. Polyethylene,
Polypropylene, polyvinyl
chloride, nylon, polystyrene
40. APPLIED MECHANICS – STATICS :
• EQUATIONS OF MOTION : In physics, equations of motion are equations
that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a
function of time. More specifically, the equations of motion describe the
behavior of a physical system as a set of mathematical functions in terms of
dynamic variables :
• The three equations are :
• v = u + at.
• v² = u² + 2as.
• s = ut + ½at²
• Where v is final velocity; u is initial velocity; a is acceleration; s is distance
and t is time.
41. EQUATIONS OF MOTION - CONTINUES
• A body starts from rest accelerate to a velocity of 20 m/s in a time of
10 s. Determine the acceleration of the body.
- Solution: Here, Final velocity v = 20m/s; u = 0 and t= 10s
- Hence using v = u + at
- 20 = 0 + 10a
- a = 20/10 = 2m/s₂
42. APPLIED MECHANICS - STATICS
• Newton's First Law
When more than one force acts upon an object, the vector sum of
these forces is the resultant force. When the resultant force on an
object is zero, it will remain at rest if it is at rest, or continue to move
in a straight line at a constant velocity if it is in motion.
• i.e an object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external force.
43. LAWS OF MOTION
• NEWTON’S SECOND LAW is usually succinctly stated with the familiar
equation:
F=ma
• where F is net force, m is mass, and a is acceleration.
• This equation indicates that a force will cause an object to accelerate in the
direction of the net force, and the magnitude of the acceleration will be
proportional to the net force but inversely proportional to the mass of the
object.
• NEWTON’S 3RD LAW : For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Newton’s Third Law states
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
44. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• HYDROCARBONS
• Aliphatic compounds are composed of straight-chained, branched, or
cyclic compounds and can be saturated (alkanes) or unsaturated (alkenes,
alkynes, and others), whereas aromatic compounds have one or more
conjugated, benzene or heterocyclic rings within their structures. ...
Examples of aliphatic and aromatic compounds
• Aliphatic hydrocarbons are divided into three main groups according to the
types of bonds they contain: alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes. Alkanes have
only single bonds, alkenes contain a carbon-carbon double bond, and
alkynes contain a carbon-carbon triple bond.
45. EXPLANATIONS
• 2,4
• H
ӏ
• H- C –H SINGLE BONDS ------ALKANES (SATURATED) Cn H2n +2
ӏ - Methane CH4; ETHANE (2C); PROPANE (3C); BUTANE (4C); PENTANE (5C)
H
• H H
ӏ ӏ
• H-C= C -H DOUBLE BOND – ALKENES ( UNSATURATED) ; ETHENE (2C); PROPENE (3C), BUTENE (4C),
PENTENE(5C) FORMULA Cn H2n
• -CΞC - TRIPLE BOND - ALKYNES ( UNSATURATED) : FORMULA Cn H2n - 2
• This makes so Carbon versatile as it has the tendencies MULTIPLE BONDS
46. ALKANES
• H H
ӏ ӏ
• H- C – C -H SINGLE BONDS ------ALKANES (SATURATED)
ӏ ӏ Ethane – C2H6 FORMULA : CnH2n+2
H H
- C3 H8 - PROPANE
- C4H10 - BUTANE
47. ALKENES
• H H
ӏ ӏ
• H-C= C -H DOUBLE BOND – ALKENES ( UNSATURATED) ; ETHENE (2C);
PROPENE (3C), BUTENE (4C), PENTENE(5C) FORMULA : Cn H2n
48. ALKYNES
• -CΞC - TRIPLE BOND - ALKYNES ( UNSATURATED) : FORMULA
• Cn H2n - 2 FOR ETHYNE C2H2 H-CΞC – H
• PROPYNE (3C); BUTHYNE (4C); PENTYNE (5C); HEXYNE (6C)
- C3H4
• Why are Alkynes so reactive than Alkanes ?
• This makes so Carbon versatile as it has the tendencies MULTIPLE
BONDS
50. CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
A cyclic hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon in which the carbon chain
joins to itself in a ring. A cycloalkane is a cyclic hydrocarbon in which
all of the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds. Like other alkanes,
cycloalkanes are saturated compounds. Cycloalkanes have the general
formula CnH2n. The simplest cycloalkane shown below is cyclopropane,
a three-carbon ring.
H H
C
H H
C C
H H
CYCLOPROPANE
52. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
• Aromatic compounds are benzene and compounds that resemble
benzene in chemical behavior.
• Aromatic compounds are less reactive than alkenes, making them
useful industrial solvents for nonpolar compounds.
• Aromatic compounds are produced from petroleum and coal tar.
• Aromatic properties are those properties of benzene that distinguish
it from aliphatic hydrocarbons. The benzene ring is a ring of a special
kind.
• Benzene has the molecular formula C6H6
53. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
• Aromatic compounds, originally named because of their fragrant
properties, are unsaturated hydrocarbon ring structures that exhibit
special properties, including unusual stability, due to their
aromaticity.
• They are often represented as resonance structures containing single
and double bonds.
• However, the bonding is stronger than expected for a conjugated
structure, and it is more accurately depicted as delocalized electron
density shared between all the atoms in the ring.
55. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS
• Physical Properties of Aromatic Compounds
- Aromatic compounds are generally nonpolar and immiscible with water. As
they are often unreactive, they are useful as solvents for other nonpolar
compounds. Due to their high ratio of carbon to hydrogen, aromatic
compounds are characterized by a sooty yellow flame
• Reactivity of Aromatic Compounds
- The double bonds in aromatic compounds are less likely to participate in
addition reactions than those found in typical alkenes. Instead, cyclic
aromatic compounds undergo electrophilic substitution reactions (reactions
in which the ring acts as an nucleophile to a suitable electrophile). When
benzene participates in such substitution reactions, the product retains the
stability associated with the aromatic [latex]pi[/latex] electron system. This
stability is lost in electrophilic addition because the product is not aromatic.
56. REACTIONS OF BENZENE
• Electrophilic Aromatic SubstitutionThe electron-rich benzene makes
a bond with an electron-deficient chemical species (E+, the
electrophile) which takes the place of an H-atom in the original
structure. The reaction preserves the pi system of electrons and
therefore the aromatic character of the benzene ring.
• C6H6 + Cl2
Fe C6H5-Cl ( Chlorobenzene) + HCl
• C6H6 + RCl C6H5 - R (Alkylbenzene ) + HCl
