This document provides an overview of key concepts related to the US Constitution and government. It begins by discussing the Articles of Confederation and weaknesses that led to the Constitutional Convention. It then covers the separation of powers, checks and balances, theories of democracy, federalism, political beliefs and behaviors of citizens, political parties, interest groups, media, and institutions of government like the presidency, Congress, and bureaucracy. The document is a review guide that defines and explains these foundational concepts.

1. AP U.S. GOVERNMENT
REVIEW GUIDE
By: Jasmine Perez

2. CONSTITUTIONAL
UNDERPINNINGS

3. ARTICLES OF
CONFEDERATION
 The precursor to the Constitution, were informally followed from
1774 to 1781.
 WEAKNESSES:
1. Could not raise an army
2. Depended on state legislature for revenue
3. Could not control interstate trade
4. No national currency
5. No control over import of export taxes
6. No executive branch or judicial branch to enforce and interpret
law

4. CONSTITUTIONAL
CONVENTION
 Split between the Virginia Plan (proportion to population) and
New Jersey Plan (equal representation over all states) lead to The
Great Compromise with a Senate and House of Representatives.
 There were Anti-Federalists (opponents) and Federalists
(supporters).
 The Anti-Federalist were swayed to agree after a Bill of Rights was
added that protected individuals from government usurpation.

5. SEPARATION OF POWERS
 From the concept of Charles de Montesquieu. The framers
delegated different but equally important tasks to the three branches.
 The legislative branch makes laws, the executive branch enforces
laws and the judicial interprets laws.
 It also prevents a person from serving in more than one branch of
the government at the same time.

7. CHECKS AND BALANCES
 A constitutional safeguard designed to prevent any one branch of
government from gaining too much power.
 Examples:
• Nomination of judges, cabinet officials and ambassadors by
the president is approved by the Senate.
• Negotiation of treaties requires two-thirds of the Senate.
• The presidential power to veto Congress.
• Courts establishment of judicial review.

9. THEORIES OF DEMOCRACY
 Direct Democracy is a system of government in which all or
most citizens participate directly, such as in a small town meeting
where everyone votes directly on all issues.
 Representative Democracy is a system of government in which
leaders that are elected for the people by the people makes decisions
by winning a competitive struggle for the popular vote.

10. FEDERALISM
Describes a system of
government under which
the national government
and state governments
share powers.

11. POLITICAL BELIEFS
AND BEHAVIORS

12. CITIZENS BELIEFS
 Political Culture: The attitudes, beliefs, and values which people have
towards the way a particular political system operates. Issues over
economic life are included because politics affects economics.
 Examples:
• Americans believe that people should be equal politically, but not equal
economically.
• Most Americans believe that every citizen should have an equal chance to
influence government policy or hold public office. People don't feel as
bad about someone who's poor as much here because they've had an
equal chance as everyone else. In the U.S. if they didn't accomplish
anything it's because of their own deficiencies.

13. POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
 How the average person gains a sense of political identity; the process begins in
childhood and continues through the rest of a person's life and allows individuals to
become aware of politics and form values and opinions relating to politics in
general.
 Sources of Political Socialization: Family/ Home influences (strongest when
both parents identify with the same party). The families views and attitudes directed
towards politics are the first experience children have. School (teach patriotism,
encourage participation in politics, educate on political structure). Social groups,
party affiliation, race and gender groups.

14. PUBLIC OPINION
 Formed from:
• Family- Majority of young people identify with the political party of
their parents; maturity=more independence from parents, included
political outlook
• Gender- There is a gender gap, a difference in political views
between the sexes, in politics that varies from time to time and varies
in magnitude.
• Religion- More evident in influencing social issues than others
• Schooling- College students are more liberal than the general
population.
• Mass Media- Is able to communicate and send messages to large
samples of people.

15. POLITICAL EFFICACY
 A citizen's capacity to understand and
influence political events
 There has been a decline in American
citizen's feeling as though the political system
will respond to their needs and beliefs.
 Political efficacy is often measured
through the use of surveys.
 There is a strong connection between
efficacy and participation and interest in
political events.

16. POLITICAL PARTIES,
INTEREST GROUPS, MASS
MEDIA

17. POLITICAL PARTIES
 Framers disliked the idea of political parties but became a mainstay by the year
1800.
 Parties endorse candidates to remain loyal to goals defined by the party
leadership.
 Two- Party System: Democrats and Republicans.
 Political parties are often divided into three broad classifications:[the electorate's
identification with the party, government officials' identification with the party, and
the organization of the party itself (those political professionals who are not elected
nor are voting specialists).

18. PARTY CHARACTERISTICS
 Parties serve as intermediates between the people and the
government.
 Parties are made up of grassroots members, activist members and
leadership.
 Parties are organized to raise money, present positions on policy,
and get their candidates elected to office.
 Parties were created outside the Constitution.

19. PARTY ORGANIZATION
 National Convention: A meeting of party delegates held every four years to nominate a
presidential candidate.
• Superdelegates: Party members that become delegates without even running for a primary or a
caucus
 National Committee: In between national conventions, a national committee stands to
manage party affairs.
 Congressional campaign committee: A party committee who in Congress that provides
funds to members and would-be members.
 National Chairman: Day-to-day party manager elected by the national committee.
• The National chairman is paid full-time to manage the party.
 Caucus: meeting of party members to decide upon delegates to support a party candidate.

20. ELECTIONS
 Party Realignments: Critical or Realigning Periods: Periods when
a major, lasting shift occurs in the popular coalition supporting one or
both parties.
 Split Ticket: voting for candidates of different parties for various
offices in the same election declines party ideology.
 Straight Ticket: voting for candidates who are all in the same
party.

21. ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
 The Two-Party System
Two-party system: An electoral system with two dominant parties that compete in
national elections.
 The two-party system in the U.S. uses the plurality system of counting votes
which when the winner of an election is the person who gets the most votes even
when they do not have a majority.
 Because the United States government has traditionally been a two party system
it has made it nearly impossible for a third party to ever come close to winning a
presidential election but they can and have taken votes from the major parties which
makes it harder for the major parties to win a majority of the vote.

22. PARTIES CONTINUED
 Ideological parties: A party that values principled stands on issues, above all else.
This is the opposite extreme of political machines. Independent "third parties" are the
most ideological parties.
 Solidary groups: parties which members join for a sense of fellowship or social
reward. Some of these groups started out as political machines; once the machine lost
power, many of the members still continued to served in the organization as a way to stay
involved and socialize. The members of solidary groups like to join for fun and they like
to be "in the know."
 Sponsored party: local/state party sponsored by another organization in the
community

23. INTEREST GROUPS
 Any organization with a shared interest that seeks to influence public
policy.
 Comprised of a group of people sharing an interest, with the goal of
getting Congress to pass or amend laws that affect them directly as a
certain group of people.
 Interest groups are often the most motivated of individuals getting
together to support an issue and for this reason interests groups might
represent minorities of people

24. TYPES
 Institutional interests: These are individuals or organizations
representing other organizations or ideologies.
• Examples: American Federation of Labor, The Chamber of
Commerce, General Motors
 Membership Interests: These are where the members in the interest
group act solely on their behalf, for their interest.
• Example: AFSCA, AARP. The AARP being ones of the biggest interest
groups in the united states
 Labor Unions, Public Interest Groups, Economic Groups

25. INCENTIVES
 Solidary incentives: the social pleasure or companionship that are a
result of the small groups. (National interest groups that give solidary
incentives often have smaller localized groups that can better offer the
incentive.)
 Material incentives: money and services that a member may receive
 Purposive incentive- a benefit that comes from serving a cause or
principle
 Ideological Interest Groups: political organizations that attract
members by appealing to their political convictions or principles

26. POLITICAL ACTION
COMMITTEES
 PACs (political action committees) donate money to politicians, candidates, and
political parties that agree with their goals. Corporations, trade groups, and unions are
some examples of those that are not allowed to make political donations, so they form
PACs in order to do this.
 PACs have been limited in donations because of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform
Act of 2002
 Over half of all PACs are sponsored by corporations, about a tenth by labor unions,
and the rest by various groups.
 While both parties have become extremely dependent on PACs, PACs are not as rich
and powerful as they seem. A PACs contribution is rather small, usually a few hundred
dollars accounting for less than 1% of a candidates receipts.

28. LOBBYING LIMITS
 Limits on Lobbying- Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946
• Allow government to monitor lobbyist activities by requiring lobbyists to register and
disclose salaries, expenses, and nature of their activities.
 Laws against Influence Peddling, using personal friendships and inside information to
get political advantage prohibition of campaign contributions from corporations, unions,
and trade
 Under the law’s definition a lobbyist is one who fits the following definitions:
Spends a minimum of 20 % of their time lobbying
 Paid a minimum of $5,000 to lobby within any six-month period
 A corporation or group that spends more than $20,000 on their lobbying staffs within
a six-month period

29. MASS MEDIA
 Newspapers: while newspapers are slowly dying out, they have many benefits such as low
cost to get word out, less competition, less government regulation, and more in-depth stories and
articles
 The Internet: the internet is becoming the most widespread source of information in the
world and it allows for information about politics and social issues to be known within hours,
minutes, or even seconds, but it faulty in that it isn't censored for the most part and so any false
information could be there without anybody's knowledge.
 Television: Television is watch by people worldwide and although it is easily accessible to
learn about politics, it has many downfalls including expense to advertisers, enormous amount of
competition, difficulty giving all the information that is necessary to viewers, and the fact that
people can easily miss important segments if they aren't watching TV.

30. MEDIA

31. RULES GOVERNING MEDIA
 F.C.C regulates radio and television.
 The government at the state and federal level can not place prior restraints
(censorship) on the press except under narrowly defined circumstances.
 Upon publication, a newspaper may be sued for libel, obscenity, and the incitement
of an illegal act. There are laws protecting the privacy of citizens as well, but these
protections do not affect newspapers very much.
 Generally newspapers can print your name and picture for a story, and when a paper
attacks an individual the newspaper is not obligated to give one space for a reply.
 Supreme Court has allowed the government to get information from reporters in
court if the information has relevance to the crime.

32. INSTITUTIONS OF
GOVERNMENT

34. PRESIDENCY
 Washington set the precedent of only serving 2 (4 year) terms.
 That didn't change until FDR who served from 1933-1945
 In 1951 the 22nd Amendment was ratified and it ensured each president could
only serve 2 terms
 Qualifications:
· Natural born citizen
· Thirty-five years of age
· Resident of the United States for at least fourteen consecutive years before the
election

35. POWERS OF PRESIDENT
 commander in chief of the armed forces
 commission officers and appoint officials to lesser offices
 grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses except for impeachment
 receive ambassadors
 convene Congress in special sessions
 take care that the law be faithfully executed
 Wield the "executive power" Appoint officials to lesser offices
 initiate foreign policy

36. CONGRESS
 Legislative Branch is known as the Congress. The Legislative Branch, outlined
by the Framers in Article I of the Constitution (preceding the Executive Branch and
the Judicial Branch), was probably seen by the Framers as the most important
branch of government, even though more emphasis is placed on the Executive
Branch today due to the media.
 Framers did not want to have all powers concentrated in a single governmental
institution, even one that was popularly elected because they feared that such a
concentration could lead the rule by an oppressive or impassioned majority
 Bicameral Legislature: A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts

38. SENATE
 100 members (can increase if more states are added to the Union)
 Representation constant among States; each State gets two Senators
 Members are voted based on a popular vote (before 17th amendment, senators
were elected by state legislatures)
 Serve staggered 6 year terms (no limit to amount of terms someone can serve)
 Less centralized, more individualist
 Because of this, even individual senators can influence introduction and passage
of legislation - there is more allowance for voices to be heard. The Senate has been
more "personal" this way.

39. HOUSE OF
REPRESENTATIVES
 435 members (fixed)
 Representation based on population of each state. This is based on the
census done every ten years so it is important to keep up your population
or lose your representation. (there is a minimum of 1 representative per
state while there is no maximum)
 Members elected by each representative's district constituents
 serve two-year terms (uncapped number of terms)
 more centralized, less individualist

40. ORGANIZATION OF
CONGRESS
 The stereotypical member is a middle-aged white protestant male
 Congress has become gradually less male and less white
 Incumbent: A person already holding an elective office
 Before the 1950s, many members of Congress served only one
term. However, in recent decades, legislators have begun to make a
career out of their membership in Congress, which has resulted in
low turnover rates.

42. BUREAUCRACY
 A bureaucracy is a large, complex organization composed of appointed officials.
 Authority is divided as each bureaucrat has a specific responsibility; one person
cannot make all the decisions.
examples of bureaucracy include large corporations, big universities, and a
government agency. Congress, with its sizable staff, is a bureaucracy to some degree.
 Political authority or the ability to exercise authority over bureaucracy is shared
by the president and Congress.

43. EXECUTIVE LEVEL
 Executive Level Departments
The cabinet: There are 15 cabinet departments headed by a secretary with the exception
of the Justice Department. They manage specific policy areas and each has its own
budget and staff.
 Regulatory agencies: independent regulatory agencies. Examples are: ICC,FTC, and
FDA.
 Government corporations: Such as the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Resolution
Trust Corporation, created to deal with monetary failures.
 Independent executive agencies: Such as the General Services Administration, which
handles government purchasing.

44. EXPANSION OF
BUREAUCRACY
 Supreme Court upheld laws that granted discretion to administrative agencies.
 Heavy use of income taxes supported war efforts and a larger bureaucracy.
Discretionary authority- the extent to which bureaucrats can chose courses of action and
make policies that are not spelled out in advance by laws.
 Congress gave administrative agencies authority in three areas:
 The Civil War began the rapid expansion of the bureaucracy because it exposed the
administrative deficiencies of the government.
 Competitive service: The government offices to which people are appointed on the
basis of merit, as ascertained by a written exam administered by the Office of Personnel
Management (OPM) or by applying certain selection criteria.

46. CONGRESSIONAL
OVERSIGHT
 If an interest group is important to Congress, it is generally taken
seriously by the bureaucracy.
 Congress also has constitutional powers over the agencies and
bureaucracies:
• No agency may exist without congressional approval.
• No money may be spent without first being approved by Congress.
• No authorized money may be spent without first being appropriated
by the House Appropriations Committee.

47. THE FEDERAL COURTS
 The Supreme Court Cases Marbury v. Madison (1803) and McCulloch v.
Maryland (1819) were extremely crucial in establishing the power of the
Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional, something
referred to as "judicial review".
This concept is the right of the federal courts to declare laws of Congress
and acts of the executive branch/president void and unconstitutional
McCulloch v. Maryland also made it clear that federal law is superior to state
law.

48. FEDERAL DISTRICT
COURTS
 These lower courts hear cases for the first time
 There are ninety-four Federal District Courts
 They decide both criminal and civil cases in original jurisdiction
• Ex: Bankruptcy
 More examples of District Court include:
• United States Court of Federal Claims
• United States Tax Court
 May use juries to decide the case
 It is established by Congress not the Constitution and judges serve for 10 years.

50. APPELLATE COURTS
 These courts hear reviews or appeals from the lower courts
 These include appellate courts. Initially, the "supreme court" of district courts
are their appellate courts (assuming that these cases are resolved in appellate courts).
 There are 13 Circuit Courts of Appeals including the DC and Federal circuits.
 In cases that make it to the Circuit Courts of Appeals, there must be a claim
regarding the violation of a constitutional right have no juries
 It is the court of last resort of the Supreme Court
 There are 179 judges in the Courts of Appeals, which are nominated by the
president and confirmed by the Senate

51. THE SUPREME COURT
 This was the only court officially created by the Constitution
 This court hears appeals from the Court of Appeals; the cases the SC
hears generally deal with the Constitution
• Of more than 10,000 cases filed by the federal courts of appeal only
around 100 are heard by the Supreme Court
 Original jurisdiction in cases involving foreign ministers
 The SC has original and appellate jurisdiction
 This court settles disputes between states.

52. PUBLIC POLICY
 Agenda Setting determines the social and economic problems, redefines them
into political issues and ranks them in order of importance.
 Policy formulation and adoption can be accomplished in a number of ways. The
most difficult method is through Congress, easiest is from executive orders.
 Policy implementation puts the policy into effect by enforcement through
appropriate government agency.
 Policy Evaluation is the final step. Evaluation provides feedback to the
policymakers, so that modifications can be made to better solve problems.

53. ECONOMIC POLICY
 Sound economy policy that achieves prosperity is probably the most
elusive of all policies. Many elements to the problem: inflation, deflation,
interest rates and international agreements.
 Fiscal Policy- government action of either lowering or raising taxes
and changing government spending.
 Monetary Policy- refers to the process by which the government
controls the supply of money in circulation and the supply of credit
through the actions of the Federal Reserve.

55. TRADE POLICY
 The ratio of imported products to exported products is called the
balance of trade. When imports exceed exports it creates a trade
deficit and nations tend to place import restrictions to fix this.
 The North American Free Trade Agreement, effectively removed
import tariffs between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
 It’s passage has also led to cheaper labor in Mexico for many U.S.
companies.

56. DOMESTIC POLICY
 Social insurance programs are in reality national insurance programs
into which employers and employees pay taxes.
 Public assistance programs are not perceived as earned. These
programs are a result of condition and a government responsibility to
help the needy.
 Social Security is an entitlement program mandated by law. The
government must pay benefits to all people who meet the requirements
of the program.

57. PERCEPTION, BELIEFS,
AND VALUES
 The perception of costs and benefits is what affects politics, they are not
completely defined in monetary terms.
 Values also affect policy making decisions, and what Americans want for the
country varies; it often times depends on whether the near future or distant future is
considered, this is known as the short-term/long-term disconnect.
 A political conflict is mostly a struggle to make some beliefs about costs and
benefits dominate others.
 Beliefs are also in conflict. A political conflict is a struggle to change
perceptions and beliefs.

58. CIVIL RIGHTS AND
CIVIL LIBERTIES

59. FIRST AMENDMENT
 Guarantees us our basic freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom of
press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of religion.
 There are limits to the freedoms. The freedom of speech must pass
the clear and present danger test. The freedom of speech does not
protect libel or slander.
 The freedom of religion abides by the Lemon Test in school policies
so that all purposes are secular if it related to the government.

61. CIVIL LIBERTIES
 Civil Liberties are the protections that the constitution provides to protect the
citizens against the abuse of government power. Don't confuse these with Civil
Rights, which usually pertain to protecting certain groups, such as races, genders, or
people of certain sexual orientations, from discrimination or maltreatment.
 Trying to decide, in various cases, if in fact anyone's civil liberties have been
violated is a major problem.
 The Constitution and the Bill of Rights contain rights and duties that conflict
with each other. Some of the main factors for this conflict are the cultural, ethnic,
and religious differences in the United States itself.

62. LANDMARK CASES
 Gitlow V. New York (1925)- Supreme Court agrees that 1st Amendment
applies to all states because of the due process clause. Since then most of
the Bill of Rights has been incorporated in to the states.
 Palko V. Connecticut (1937)-Supreme Court agrees that states must
respect all "fundamental" liberties
 These cases led the Supreme Courts to begin to use selective
incorporation.

63. EXCLUSIONARY RULE
 Improperly gathered evidence(in violation of the Constitution)
may not be used in a criminal or civil trial.
• Fourth Amendment - protection against unreasonable search and
seizures and obtaining improper confessions
• Fifth Amendment - protection against self incrimination.
• In 1949 the Supreme Court first decided that even though the 4th
Amendment prohibits the police from carrying out unreasonable
searches and obtaining improper confessions that the exclusionary
rule is not necessary to enforce these prohibitions.

64. BILL OF RIGHTS TO THE
STATES
 Selective incorporation: Court cases that apply the Bill of Rights to the States. Not
all rights are applied to the states. The Court debated which rights were "fundamental"
that they had to govern the states. The entire Bill of Rights is applicable to the states
except the following: the right to bear arms(2nd Amendment); the right not to have
soldiers forcibly quartered in homes(3rd Amendment); the right to be indicted by a grand
jury before being tried for a serious crime(5th Amendment); the right to a jury in civil
cases(7th Amendment); and the ban on excessive bail and fines(8th Amendment). These
rights can be restricted by the states.
 Due process of law: Denies the government the right, without due process, to
deprive people of life, liberty, and property

65. CIVIL RIGHTS
 In 1830 Congress passed a law requiring all Indians east of the Mississippi River
to move to the Indian Territory west of the river, and the army set about
implementing it.
 In the 1850s a major political fight broke out in Boston over whether the police
department should be obliged to hire an Irish officer.
 Until 1920 women could not vote in most elections.
 The Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment guarantees civil rights;
after the Civil War, the amendment was added to the Constitution to ensure states
would not discriminate against former slaves and that the civil liberties of these
newly freed individuals would be protected.

67. SEPARATE BUT EQUAL
 The separate by equal doctrine created separate but very unequal
facilities.
 Blacks usually had the poorer schools and less well kept facilities to
use
 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) was formed in 1909 to try and get rid of this doctrine
cause things were obviously not equal, especially educationally

68. SUPREME COURT CASES
 Plessy v. Ferguson(1896) ruled that segregated schools and other
"separate but equal" facilities were not unconstitutional.
• The Court's interpretation of the equal-protection clause was that the law
guaranteed political and legal equality but not social equality.
 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) ruled that separate
schools are not equal and overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson case.
 Green v. County of School Board of New Kent County (1968):
Banned the freedom of choice plan for integrating schools making blacks
and whites have to attend multiracial schools.

69. SEGREGATION V.
INTEGRATION
 De jure segregation: “racial segregation that is required by law.” A good example
of this is during the time of Jim Crow laws in the southern states.
 De facto segregation: “racial segregation that occurs in schools, not as a result of
the law, but as a result of patterns of residential settlement.”
 In New Kent County, Virginia, the school board created a “freedom-of-choice” plan
under which each student would be allowed to attend a school of their choice. The
Supreme Court rejected this plan as unconstitutional because it did not produce a
“nonracial system of education”.
 Schools cannot be held accountable for segregation due to living patterns and if that
was the only case of the segregation, the Court would relinquish its hold on the school.

70. WOMEN’S RIGHTS
 Origins from the Seneca Falls convention in 1848
 Congress responded by passing laws that required equal pay for equal work, prohibited
discrimination on the basis of sex in employment and among students in any school or university
receiving federal funds, and banned discrimination against pregnant women on the job
 Supreme Court had to choose between two standards when dealing with sex discrimination:
The Reasonableness standard stating that government treats some classes differently and this
treatment must be reasonable, and second the Strict scrutiny standard which states that some
distinctions drawn between groups are inherently suspect.
 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1972 banned sex discrimination in the hiring, firing, and
compensation of employees, and apply to both government and private actions

71. FOURTEENTH
AMENDMENT
 The Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment guarantees civil rights; after the
Civil War, the amendment was added to the Constitution to ensure states would not
discriminate against former slaves and that the civil liberties of these newly freed
individuals would be protected. The amendment provided for due process and equal
protection, which allowed the Supreme Court to apply the Bill of Rights to the states-
Prior to the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment all the citizens had were the Bill of
Rights, which at the time did not apply to the states (only to the national government).
 The Declaration of Independence, although not a governing document, suggested
that the government should have civil rights integrated. However, the Dred Scott case
established that slaves were property.

72. THE END