Animal cell
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The document describes the main organelles found in cells and their functions. The mitochondrion produces energy for the cell, the nucleus controls cell activities, and the Golgi apparatus processes and packages proteins. The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and transport, the cell membrane controls movement into and out of the cell, and free ribosomes also aid in protein synthesis.
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The document describes the main parts of a cell, including the cell membrane, mitochondria, nucleus, ribosome, cytoplasm, and Golgi body. It provides details on the structure and functions of each part. The cell membrane forms the boundary of the cell and transports nutrients and waste. Mitochondria produce energy through chemical pathways. The nucleus contains genetic material and controls cell growth. Ribosomes produce proteins. The cytoplasm surrounds cell components except the nucleus. The Golgi body packages and secretes proteins within membrane-bound vesicles.
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This document discusses cells, their structure and functions. It covers the main components of cells, including the nucleus, mitochondria and organelles. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic and eukaryotic. The document also discusses cell division, protein synthesis, manufacturing and transport within cells. Living things need cells to grow and reproduce, and cells require raw materials to build new cells to replace dead ones.
2.1 Cells
Cells have a cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm and organelles. The cytoplasm contains a cytoskeleton that maintains the cell's shape. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack membrane-bound structures, and eukaryotic cells which have organelles enclosed in membranes. Organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, vacuoles and lysosomes each have specific functions like processing energy and materials, transporting substances and recycling cellular wastes.
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Cells have a cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm and organelles. The cytoplasm contains a cytoskeleton that maintains the cell's shape. Organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, vacuoles, and lysosomes perform specialized functions inside the cell. Plant cells additionally have a cell wall and chloroplasts for photosynthesis, while animal cells rely on mitochondria to produce energy from food.
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This document describes the main parts and functions of cells. It identifies the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, chloroplasts, vacuoles, nucleus, nuclear membrane, and chromosomes as the key parts of eukaryotic cells. The cell wall and membrane protect the cell, the cytoplasm allows movement within the cell, mitochondria produce energy, chloroplasts perform photosynthesis, vacuoles store materials, and the nucleus and chromosomes control cell activities. Prokaryotes are simple single cells without nuclei, while eukaryotes are complex multicellular organisms.
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Mitosis part 1
Cells divide through the process of mitosis in order to repair and replace old or damaged cells, to grow, and to develop multicellular organisms. Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase where the genetic material and cytoplasm are divided to form two identical daughter cells. The cell cycle, which is the life of a cell, includes interphase where the cell grows and duplicates its DNA in preparation for division, and M-phase where mitosis and cytokinesis occur. The cell cycle is tightly regulated by internal factors such as cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases and external growth factors to ensure cells only divide when necessary.
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La celula: la teoría celular, estructura y función. La división celular
Teoría celular, cell theory
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Cell organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, centrosome, ribosomes, and mitochondria are structures within animal cells that perform specific functions like controlling cell growth and producing energy. The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane or biomembrane, covers the cell and its organelles, regulating the exchange of materials between cells and organelles through selective permeability. Mitochondria are known as the "powerhouse of the cell" as they help produce and store energy through cellular respiration.
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Eukaryotic cells have complex internal structures that allow them to be larger and more specialized than prokaryotic cells. They have a nucleus that contains their DNA and organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts that perform specialized functions. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeletons and can develop external structures like flagella and cilia. This complex internal organization allows eukaryotic cells to form multicellular organisms and carry out complex processes like photosynthesis.
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WHAT IS CELL?
WHAT IS CELL DIVISION OR CELL CYCLE?
WHY DO CELL DIVIDE?
HISTORY
CELL CYCLE
INTERPHASE
M-PHASE
MOLECULAR EVENT DURING CELL CYCLE AND CELL REGULATION
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
IMPORTANCE OF CELL DIVISION
ABNORMALTIES OF CELL CYCLE
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The document discusses observing different types of cells under a light microscope. It mentions that the objectives are to prepare and observe cork, onion, and cheek cells. It asks the reader to think about how staining may help make the plant cells more visible under the microscope and whether it would allow seeing the cell nucleus and organelles. It provides the structures of plant, animal, and cork cells and asks the reader to look at the differences between them and report their observations of onion, cheek, and cork cells for the next week.
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Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
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One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
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Cell organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, centrosome, ribosomes, and mitochondria are structures within animal cells that perform specific functions like controlling cell growth and producing energy. The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane or biomembrane, covers the cell and its organelles, regulating the exchange of materials between cells and organelles through selective permeability. Mitochondria are known as the "powerhouse of the cell" as they help produce and store energy through cellular respiration.
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This document discusses the key structures and functions of cells. It begins by describing how Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 when examining cork under a microscope. The main structures of animal cells are then outlined, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nuclear membrane, and organelles. The types of cells are defined as prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Chromosomes, genes, and cell division are also summarized. The document provides a comprehensive overview of cellular structures and their functions at a basic level.
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Cells are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms. A cell contains a nucleus that holds genetic material and membrane-bound organelles suspended in cytoplasm. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The cell is surrounded by a membrane and contains a nucleus that houses DNA, organelles like mitochondria and lysosomes, and cytoplasm within which various chemical reactions take place.
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Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or multi-celled, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle.
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CELL CYCLE
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TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
IMPORTANCE OF CELL DIVISION
ABNORMALTIES OF CELL CYCLE
REFRENCES
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Cells have a cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm and organelles. The cytoplasm contains a cytoskeleton that maintains the cell's shape. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells which lack membrane-bound structures, and eukaryotic cells which have organelles enclosed in membranes. Organelles such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, vacuoles and lysosomes each have specific functions like processing energy and materials, transporting substances and recycling cellular wastes.
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The document discusses observing different types of cells under a light microscope. It mentions that the objectives are to prepare and observe cork, onion, and cheek cells. It asks the reader to think about how staining may help make the plant cells more visible under the microscope and whether it would allow seeing the cell nucleus and organelles. It provides the structures of plant, animal, and cork cells and asks the reader to look at the differences between them and report their observations of onion, cheek, and cork cells for the next week.
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This document provides an overview of cell organelles and their functions. It discusses that cells are the basic unit of life and perform various functions to keep an organism alive. Some key organelles and their functions mentioned include the nucleus which contains DNA and controls the cell, mitochondria which generate energy in the form of ATP, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus which are involved in protein transport and modification, and lysosomes which digest materials. The document also notes that organelles work together to carry out the essential processes of energy production, protein synthesis, waste removal, and cell division.
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This document provides information about cell structure and function. It begins by outlining cell theory, including that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function, and cells only come from existing cells. It then discusses cell diversity in shape, size, and function. The rest of the document describes specific parts of eukaryotic cells like the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, as well as comparing plant and animal cells. Key cellular structures and their functions are defined.
The Cell
Cells are the basis of life—the basic structural unit of living things. Molecules such as water and amino acids are not alive but cells are! All life is comprised of cells of one type or another.
One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
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One of the hallmarks of living systems is the ability to maintain homeostasis, or a relatively constant internal state. The cell is the first level of complexity able to maintain homeostasis, and it is the unique structure of the cell that enables this critical function.
In this section of the course, you will learn about the cell and all the parts that make it functional. You will also focus on the cell membrane, which is the structure that surrounds the cell and separates its internal environment from the external environment. It is a critical component because it controls what can enter and exit the cell. This section will also describe how cells reproduce to maintain homeostasis.
The cell
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells contain several organelles that perform essential functions. The cell wall provides structural support to plant and fungal cells and is made of cellulose or chitin. The cell membrane forms a protective barrier around the cell and is composed of lipids and proteins that regulate what enters and exits the cell. Within the cell is the nucleus that houses the cell's DNA, as well as other organelles like mitochondria that generate energy, the endoplasmic reticulum that synthesizes proteins and lipids, and ribosomes that produce proteins using instructions from DNA.
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This document provides information about eukaryotic cell origin, structure, and function. It discusses how eukaryotic cells originated from prokaryotic cells through endosymbiotic theory. Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts that allow for more complex structures and functions compared to prokaryotic cells. The document describes the key components of plant and animal cells including their cell membranes, cytoplasm, organelles, and differences between the two cell types.
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Blood clotting
The human circulatory system transports blood throughout the body using arteries and veins. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to organs and tissues, while veins return deoxygenated blood back to the heart and lungs. A key function of blood is clotting to prevent excessive bleeding when blood vessels are damaged.
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This document provides the mark scheme for a GCE Biology exam. [1] It outlines the general principles for how marks will be awarded, including symbols used and policies on spelling and clarity. [2] Sample exam questions and answers are provided with the maximum number of marks indicated for each part. [3] Detailed explanations are given for how marks would be allocated for students' responses.
Virus
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that consist of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. They can only reproduce inside a living host cell by using the host's materials and enzymes. Viruses come in a wide range of sizes but are generally 20-400 nanometers. Some viruses have an envelope formed from the host cell membrane that may contain spikes. The complete, infectious viral particle is called a virion. Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria and have a more complex structure including a head and tail used to inject viral DNA. They can undergo lytic replication, releasing new virus particles, or lysogenic replication where their DNA inserts into the host chromosome.
Homologous chromosomes
Humans have 46 chromosomes that come in 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, with half inherited from each parent. A karyotype shows these pairs of matching chromosomes. For a given character, the gene is always found in the same locus on one of the two chromosomes that make up a homologous pair.
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There are 5 clues a dead body can provide to determine the approximate time of death:
1. The extent of decomposition indicates if the body died recently or longer ago.
2. The extent of rigor mortis shows if the body is still stiff or has gone limp.
3. The body's temperature reveals if it has had time to cool to ambient temperature.
4. Entomology examines which insect larvae are present and at what development stage to estimate time.
5. Succession of insect species that feed on a decomposing body also informs time estimates.
Macromolecules proteins
Proteins are formed by joining amino acids, of which there are 20 types found in humans. Amino acids are bonded together by peptide linkages to form polypeptide chains, which fold into specific three-dimensional shapes at the secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary levels to create functional proteins. These protein structures can become denatured by factors like heat or chemical changes, causing them to lose their biological function.
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Energy in ecosystem new
Food chains show the transfer of energy between trophic levels in an ecosystem. Primary producers like plants get energy from the sun through photosynthesis. Herbivores eat primary producers, and carnivores eat herbivores or other carnivores. At each trophic level, around 90% of the energy is lost through heat, only 10% is transferred to the next level. This is why food chains usually form a pyramid shape, with fewer organisms at higher trophic levels which require more energy and resources from lower levels.
Antigens and antibodies
Antibodies are Y-shaped proteins produced by B lymphocytes that recognize and bind to specific foreign antigens, protecting the body from infection. Antigens are molecules like proteins or carbohydrates that are recognized by antibodies due to their unique shapes. The body can identify bacteria and viruses as foreign because they contain antigens on their surfaces that are different from the body's own antigens. When antibodies bind to antigens, the marked cells or particles may be destroyed by phagocytes or caused to clump together for destruction.
Greenhouse effect 1
The greenhouse effect is the process by which gases like carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun, warming the planet's surface. Solar energy warms the Earth's surface, which then emits infrared radiation back towards space. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, CFCs, and ozone absorb this infrared radiation and re-emit it in all directions, trapping heat and causing the Earth's average surface temperature to be about 25°C warmer than it would be otherwise. Carbon dioxide levels have increased 27% since the industrial revolution due to human activities like burning fossil fuels, and methane levels have risen 145% over the last 200 years.
Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease is caused by atherosclerosis, which is the hardening of the arteries due to fat deposition. High blood pressure and chemicals in tobacco smoke can damage artery walls, causing plaque to build up. Over time, plaque can block or reduce blood flow, leading to chest pain, heart attack, or stroke if a blood clot forms or breaks off. To prevent cardiovascular disease, people should maintain a healthy lifestyle by not smoking, exercising, limiting alcohol, and managing stress.
Genetic code
The genetic code contains rules for translating genetic information in DNA into proteins. It uses triplet codons where each codon specifies a single amino acid. The code is degenerate, with more than one codon coding for an amino acid. It is non-overlapping and non-ambiguous, with each codon corresponding to only one amino acid. Translation proceeds continuously in a 5' to 3' direction, with AUG always initiating protein synthesis and specifying methionine.
Vitamins & minerals
Lack of minerals like calcium, iron, chromium, and magnesium can lead to serious health conditions. Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency and causes iron-deficiency anemia with symptoms like fatigue, weakness, and decreased immune function. Calcium is important for bone health and deficiency can cause osteoporosis. Vitamin deficiencies can also cause diseases like scurvy with symptoms of bleeding gums and spots on the skin or rickets, a softening of the bones in children. Nutrition involves taking in nutrients from food for growth, tissue repair, and energy through absorption and assimilation.
Biodiversity new
The document discusses several threats to biodiversity, including habitat loss and destruction from human activity and population growth, alterations in ecosystem composition such as loss of species, introduction of exotic species, overexploitation of species, pollution and contamination, and climate change. These threats can lead to loss of species, populations, and ecosystems. The document also discusses the importance of biodiversity, including its intrinsic value, role in providing goods like food and shelter for humans, importance for ecosystem services like water purification and soil fertility, role in medical research, importance for productivity of natural and agricultural systems, and role in evolution through genetic diversity.
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled prokaryotes that are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. They have no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles and contain DNA in a nucleoid. Bacteria come in various shapes including spherical, rod-shaped, spiral, and S-shaped. They reproduce through binary fission and genetic transfer. Bacteria play important roles in nutrient recycling but some can cause infectious diseases.
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Monohybrid cross
A monohybrid cross is a cross between two individuals differing in one character pair, such as tall vs dwarf plants. The F1 generation produced from this cross is then self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation. In a monohybrid cross involving a dominant tall trait and recessive dwarf trait, the F1 generation will all be tall, while the F2 generation will exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of tall to dwarf plants.
Inheritance
Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins and occur in pairs inside the cell nucleus. They are inherited such that offspring receive one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother's egg and one set of 23 chromosomes from their father's sperm. An individual's gender is determined by their sex chromosomes, with females having two X chromosomes and males having one X and one Y chromosome. DNA carries the genetic instructions for cells and is organized into genes that code for proteins.
Human heart
The human heart has four chambers - two atria that receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood. The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body. The heart is made of cardiac muscle that can contract regularly without fatigue. Blood returns to the heart through the vena cavae and pulmonary veins and is pumped back out through the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Genetics of human blood groups
There are four main blood types in the ABO blood group system defined by the presence or absence of antigens A and B. A person's blood type is determined by combinations of three alleles - IA produces the A antigen, IB produces the B antigen, and i produces no antigen. Both IA and IB are codominant, so someone with the genotype IAIB will have both the A and B antigens and have blood type AB.
Cell division basics
Cell division is necessary for growth, reproduction and repair of organisms. Mitosis produces two cells from one parent cell with the same number of chromosomes, while meiosis produces four reproductive cells from one parent cell with only half the number of chromosomes, resulting in sperms and ova with 23 chromosomes each.
Food tests
The document describes procedures for testing foods for the presence of starch, glucose, proteins, and oils/fats. For each test, it provides the steps to perform the test along with the expected color change results for a positive or negative indication of the substance being tested. The tests involve adding reagents like iodine, Benedict's solution, Biuret reagent, or water and observing any color changes that confirm or rule out the presence of starch, glucose, proteins, or oils/fats.
Food pyramid
The Food Pyramid outlines 6 food groups and recommends eating more servings from the groups at the bottom and fewer from those at the top. Grains form the base and should provide 50% of daily calories. Fruits and vegetables are next and provide vitamins and fiber, with 5-9 servings recommended daily. Dairy, meat and alternatives make up the third level and supply nutrients like calcium and protein, with 2-3 servings each day. Fats, oils and sweets at the top should be eaten sparingly and in moderation.
Yogurt
Yogurt is produced by adding a starter culture containing Lactobacillus bulgaricus bacteria to milk. During fermentation, the bacteria convert lactose into lactic acid, lowering the pH and causing the milk proteins to thicken. This partial pre-digestion and acidic environment makes yogurt easily digestible and able to replenish healthy bacteria in the intestines after antibiotic use. Yogurt can be made by boiling, cooling, and incubating milk with a starter culture for 10 hours to allow the bacteria to ferment the lactose into lactic acid.
Nutrition new
The document discusses the main components of nutrition - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. It describes the different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Proteins are formed from amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Lipids include fats, oils, and phospholipids. The document also provides examples of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids and discusses hydrolysis and condensation reactions.
Diet
A balanced diet requires getting adequate macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats, as well as micronutrients including vitamins and mineral salts. Carbohydrates provide energy and are obtained from foods like grains, fruits and vegetables. Proteins from meat, fish, beans and dairy are needed for growth, repair and bodily functions. Fats supply energy and are found in plant oils and animal products. A balanced diet also includes fiber from plants and water, which transports nutrients and regulates bodily processes. Vitamins and minerals regulate functions and protect the body, with vitamins classified as water or fat soluble.
Root hair cells and water transport
Transport in plants occurs through xylem vessels. If a plant stem is placed in dye, the dye will be transported through the xylem into the leaves. Lignified xylem vessels provide structural support, especially in larger plants. Young plants wilt without water because their central cells lack support. Cambium is a layer of cells that divides to produce both xylem and phloem. Root hair cells have thin extensions that increase their surface area for water absorption from soil. Transpiration occurs on the underside of leaves and drives the movement of water through the plant.
Cells
Cells of various types were described, including pollen grains that are typically 100 micrometers in size, red blood cells that contain hemoglobin and help transport gases through their biconcave shape, and root hair cells that have thin extensions to increase the surface area for water absorption.
Plant cell
The document describes the functions of three organelles in a plant cell. The chloroplast harvests energy from sunlight to produce sugar. The vacuole stores water and other materials. The cell wall supports the plant cell.
Transport in plants
Plants have developed vascular systems to transport nutrients and water throughout their large bodies. The xylem transports water and minerals up from the roots through dead conductive cells, while the phloem transports organic nutrients down from the leaves through living cells. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves, and creates a transpirational pull that drives water absorption by roots and transport through xylem vessels up the stem using capillarity and osmosis.
Topic 6 infection, immunity and forensics revision
1. The document discusses microorganisms that cause disease, called pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and worms.
2. It provides details on the structure and life cycle of viruses and bacteria, and explains how diseases like HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis are caused and transmitted.
3. Prevention methods for diseases are discussed, such as vaccinations, antibiotics, and improving living standards.
Forensics
The document discusses several forensic clues that can indicate time of death:
1. The stages of decomposition and rigor mortis in the body provide clues. Rigor mortis starts 2-4 hours after death as muscle cells run out of ATP and lock rigid.
2. The type and development of insect larvae living in the body can also provide clues about time since death.
3. Body temperature decreases after death due to heat transfer to the surroundings, and factors like body fat, clothing, and surroundings affect the cooling rate, allowing time of death to be estimated by comparing to known cooling curves.
Death and decays
This document discusses the stages of decomposition that occur with a dead body over time, as well as factors that can affect the decay process. It begins with anaerobic bacteria breaking down cells, followed by blowflies and beetles laying eggs which hatch into maggots that feed on the tissues. Later stages involve other insects like cheese flies, coffin flies, and beetles as the body dries out. Forensic entomology uses the insect evidence to estimate time of death based on the lifecycle stages found.
Bacteria
The document discusses bacteria and antibiotics. It provides information about testing for HIV infection, how HIV affects T helper cells and health, how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, comparing antibiotic effectiveness using paper discs, and why antibiotics do not work on viruses. Graphs are included showing T helper cell counts in an HIV-infected individual, antibiotic usage and bacterial resistance over time.
Immunity and virus
HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers. The virus uses the CD4 receptor and CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptors to enter T cells, then integrates its genetic material into the host cell DNA and uses the cell's machinery to replicate itself. Antiretroviral drugs target different stages of the HIV life cycle to suppress viral replication and stop the progression of HIV disease.
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Topic 6 infection, immunity and forensics revision
Topic 6 infection, immunity and forensics revision
Animal cell
- 1. Cell
- 3. Mitochondrion Produces energy for the cell
- 4. Nucleus Controls all activities within the cell
- 5. Golgi apparatus Processes and packages proteins
- 6. Endoplasmic reticulum Protein synthesis and transport of materials through the cytoplasm
- 7. Cell membrane Controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell
- 8. Free ribosomes Protein synthesis