Immunity and virus
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HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers. Over time, HIV can cause AIDS if not treated. Antiretroviral drugs can suppress HIV and stop the progression to AIDS, but cannot cure the infection entirely.
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Transgenic organisms
Transgenic organisms are organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. Common examples include crop plants modified for traits like herbicide or pest resistance. Genetic material from other species can be inserted into organisms using techniques like microinjection, retroviral vectors, or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Transgenic organisms have applications in producing biological products, testing vaccine and chemical safety, and studying physiology, development, and disease. Regulatory agencies oversee transgenic crops and animals.
5 immune defense against bacterial pathogens
1. Innate immunity provides the first line of defense against pathogens and includes anatomical barriers, inflammation, phagocytosis, and antimicrobial proteins/peptides.
2. Adaptive immunity develops over time upon exposure to specific pathogens and provides enhanced protection through antibody production and immunological memory.
3. The major categories of innate immunity defenses are anatomical barriers, inflammation, phagocytosis, microbial antagonism by normal flora, and antimicrobial substances in tissues. Adaptive immunity involves B cells, T cells, and production of antibodies.
Monohybrid cross
A monohybrid cross is a cross between two individuals differing in one character pair, such as tall vs dwarf plants. The F1 generation produced from this cross is then self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation. In a monohybrid cross involving a dominant tall trait and recessive dwarf trait, the F1 generation will all be tall, while the F2 generation will exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of tall to dwarf plants.
Inheritance
Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins and occur in pairs inside the cell nucleus. They are inherited such that offspring receive one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother's egg and one set of 23 chromosomes from their father's sperm. An individual's gender is determined by their sex chromosomes, with females having two X chromosomes and males having one X and one Y chromosome. DNA carries the genetic instructions for cells and is organized into genes that code for proteins.
Human heart
The human heart has four chambers - two atria that receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood. The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body. The heart is made of cardiac muscle that can contract regularly without fatigue. Blood returns to the heart through the vena cavae and pulmonary veins and is pumped back out through the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Genetics of human blood groups
There are four main blood types in the ABO blood group system defined by the presence or absence of antigens A and B. A person's blood type is determined by combinations of three alleles - IA produces the A antigen, IB produces the B antigen, and i produces no antigen. Both IA and IB are codominant, so someone with the genotype IAIB will have both the A and B antigens and have blood type AB.
Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease is caused by atherosclerosis, which is the hardening of the arteries due to fat deposition. High blood pressure and chemicals in tobacco smoke can damage artery walls, causing plaque to build up. Over time, plaque can block or reduce blood flow, leading to chest pain, heart attack, or stroke if a blood clot forms or breaks off. To prevent cardiovascular disease, people should maintain a healthy lifestyle by not smoking, exercising, limiting alcohol, and managing stress.
Cell division basics
Cell division is necessary for growth, reproduction and repair of organisms. Mitosis produces two cells from one parent cell with the same number of chromosomes, while meiosis produces four reproductive cells from one parent cell with only half the number of chromosomes, resulting in sperms and ova with 23 chromosomes each.
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Transgenic organisms
Transgenic organisms are organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. Common examples include crop plants modified for traits like herbicide or pest resistance. Genetic material from other species can be inserted into organisms using techniques like microinjection, retroviral vectors, or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Transgenic organisms have applications in producing biological products, testing vaccine and chemical safety, and studying physiology, development, and disease. Regulatory agencies oversee transgenic crops and animals.
5 immune defense against bacterial pathogens
1. Innate immunity provides the first line of defense against pathogens and includes anatomical barriers, inflammation, phagocytosis, and antimicrobial proteins/peptides.
2. Adaptive immunity develops over time upon exposure to specific pathogens and provides enhanced protection through antibody production and immunological memory.
3. The major categories of innate immunity defenses are anatomical barriers, inflammation, phagocytosis, microbial antagonism by normal flora, and antimicrobial substances in tissues. Adaptive immunity involves B cells, T cells, and production of antibodies.
Monohybrid cross
A monohybrid cross is a cross between two individuals differing in one character pair, such as tall vs dwarf plants. The F1 generation produced from this cross is then self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation. In a monohybrid cross involving a dominant tall trait and recessive dwarf trait, the F1 generation will all be tall, while the F2 generation will exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of tall to dwarf plants.
Inheritance
Chromosomes contain DNA and proteins and occur in pairs inside the cell nucleus. They are inherited such that offspring receive one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother's egg and one set of 23 chromosomes from their father's sperm. An individual's gender is determined by their sex chromosomes, with females having two X chromosomes and males having one X and one Y chromosome. DNA carries the genetic instructions for cells and is organized into genes that code for proteins.
Human heart
The human heart has four chambers - two atria that receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood. The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body. The heart is made of cardiac muscle that can contract regularly without fatigue. Blood returns to the heart through the vena cavae and pulmonary veins and is pumped back out through the pulmonary artery and aorta.
Genetics of human blood groups
There are four main blood types in the ABO blood group system defined by the presence or absence of antigens A and B. A person's blood type is determined by combinations of three alleles - IA produces the A antigen, IB produces the B antigen, and i produces no antigen. Both IA and IB are codominant, so someone with the genotype IAIB will have both the A and B antigens and have blood type AB.
Coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease is caused by atherosclerosis, which is the hardening of the arteries due to fat deposition. High blood pressure and chemicals in tobacco smoke can damage artery walls, causing plaque to build up. Over time, plaque can block or reduce blood flow, leading to chest pain, heart attack, or stroke if a blood clot forms or breaks off. To prevent cardiovascular disease, people should maintain a healthy lifestyle by not smoking, exercising, limiting alcohol, and managing stress.
Cell division basics
Cell division is necessary for growth, reproduction and repair of organisms. Mitosis produces two cells from one parent cell with the same number of chromosomes, while meiosis produces four reproductive cells from one parent cell with only half the number of chromosomes, resulting in sperms and ova with 23 chromosomes each.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH balance. It includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The circulatory system is also essential for fighting diseases and transporting blood cells that help the immune system.
Vitamins & minerals
Lack of minerals like calcium, iron, chromium, and magnesium can lead to serious health conditions. Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency and causes iron-deficiency anemia with symptoms like fatigue, weakness, and decreased immune function. Calcium is important for bone health and deficiency can cause osteoporosis. Vitamin deficiencies can also cause diseases like scurvy with symptoms of bleeding gums and spots on the skin or rickets, a softening of the bones in children. Nutrition involves taking in nutrients from food for growth, tissue repair, and energy through absorption and assimilation.
Food tests
The document describes procedures for testing foods for the presence of starch, glucose, proteins, and oils/fats. For each test, it provides the steps to perform the test along with the expected color change results for a positive or negative indication of the substance being tested. The tests involve adding reagents like iodine, Benedict's solution, Biuret reagent, or water and observing any color changes that confirm or rule out the presence of starch, glucose, proteins, or oils/fats.
Food pyramid
The Food Pyramid outlines 6 food groups and recommends eating more servings from the groups at the bottom and fewer from those at the top. Grains form the base and should provide 50% of daily calories. Fruits and vegetables are next and provide vitamins and fiber, with 5-9 servings recommended daily. Dairy, meat and alternatives make up the third level and supply nutrients like calcium and protein, with 2-3 servings each day. Fats, oils and sweets at the top should be eaten sparingly and in moderation.
Yogurt
Yogurt is produced by adding a starter culture containing Lactobacillus bulgaricus bacteria to milk. During fermentation, the bacteria convert lactose into lactic acid, lowering the pH and causing the milk proteins to thicken. This partial pre-digestion and acidic environment makes yogurt easily digestible and able to replenish healthy bacteria in the intestines after antibiotic use. Yogurt can be made by boiling, cooling, and incubating milk with a starter culture for 10 hours to allow the bacteria to ferment the lactose into lactic acid.
Nutrition new
The document discusses the main components of nutrition - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. It describes the different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Proteins are formed from amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Lipids include fats, oils, and phospholipids. The document also provides examples of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids and discusses hydrolysis and condensation reactions.
Diet
A balanced diet requires getting adequate macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats, as well as micronutrients including vitamins and mineral salts. Carbohydrates provide energy and are obtained from foods like grains, fruits and vegetables. Proteins from meat, fish, beans and dairy are needed for growth, repair and bodily functions. Fats supply energy and are found in plant oils and animal products. A balanced diet also includes fiber from plants and water, which transports nutrients and regulates bodily processes. Vitamins and minerals regulate functions and protect the body, with vitamins classified as water or fat soluble.
Root hair cells and water transport
Transport in plants occurs through xylem vessels. If a plant stem is placed in dye, the dye will be transported through the xylem into the leaves. Lignified xylem vessels provide structural support, especially in larger plants. Young plants wilt without water because their central cells lack support. Cambium is a layer of cells that divides to produce both xylem and phloem. Root hair cells have thin extensions that increase their surface area for water absorption from soil. Transpiration occurs on the underside of leaves and drives the movement of water through the plant.
Animal cell
The document describes the main organelles found in cells and their functions. The mitochondrion produces energy for the cell, the nucleus controls cell activities, and the Golgi apparatus processes and packages proteins. The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and transport, the cell membrane controls movement into and out of the cell, and free ribosomes also aid in protein synthesis.
Cells
Cells of various types were described, including pollen grains that are typically 100 micrometers in size, red blood cells that contain hemoglobin and help transport gases through their biconcave shape, and root hair cells that have thin extensions to increase the surface area for water absorption.
Plant cell
The document describes the functions of three organelles in a plant cell. The chloroplast harvests energy from sunlight to produce sugar. The vacuole stores water and other materials. The cell wall supports the plant cell.
Transport in plants
Plants have developed vascular systems to transport nutrients and water throughout their large bodies. The xylem transports water and minerals up from the roots through dead conductive cells, while the phloem transports organic nutrients down from the leaves through living cells. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves, and creates a transpirational pull that drives water absorption by roots and transport through xylem vessels up the stem using capillarity and osmosis.
Topic 6 infection, immunity and forensics revision
1. The document discusses microorganisms that cause disease, called pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and worms.
2. It provides details on the structure and life cycle of viruses and bacteria, and explains how diseases like HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis are caused and transmitted.
3. Prevention methods for diseases are discussed, such as vaccinations, antibiotics, and improving living standards.
Forensics
The document discusses several forensic clues that can indicate time of death:
1. The stages of decomposition and rigor mortis in the body provide clues. Rigor mortis starts 2-4 hours after death as muscle cells run out of ATP and lock rigid.
2. The type and development of insect larvae living in the body can also provide clues about time since death.
3. Body temperature decreases after death due to heat transfer to the surroundings, and factors like body fat, clothing, and surroundings affect the cooling rate, allowing time of death to be estimated by comparing to known cooling curves.
Death and decays
This document discusses the stages of decomposition that occur with a dead body over time, as well as factors that can affect the decay process. It begins with anaerobic bacteria breaking down cells, followed by blowflies and beetles laying eggs which hatch into maggots that feed on the tissues. Later stages involve other insects like cheese flies, coffin flies, and beetles as the body dries out. Forensic entomology uses the insect evidence to estimate time of death based on the lifecycle stages found.
Bacteria
The document discusses bacteria and antibiotics. It provides information about testing for HIV infection, how HIV affects T helper cells and health, how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, comparing antibiotic effectiveness using paper discs, and why antibiotics do not work on viruses. Graphs are included showing T helper cell counts in an HIV-infected individual, antibiotic usage and bacterial resistance over time.
Immunity and virus
HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers. The virus uses the CD4 receptor and CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptors to enter T cells, then integrates its genetic material into the host cell DNA and uses the cell's machinery to replicate itself. Antiretroviral drugs target different stages of the HIV life cycle to suppress viral replication and stop the progression of HIV disease.
Forensics
The document discusses several forensic clues that can indicate time of death:
1. The stages of decomposition and rigor mortis in the body provide clues. Rigor mortis starts 2-4 hours after death as muscle cells run out of ATP and lock rigid.
2. The insects and larvae living in the dead tissue and their development stage also provide clues.
3. Body temperature decreases after death due to heat transfer to surroundings, and comparing the cooling curve to standard curves can estimate time of death, though factors like body fat, clothing, and surroundings affect cooling rate.
Death and decays
This document discusses the stages of decomposition that occur with a dead body over time, as well as factors that can affect the decay process. It begins with anaerobic bacteria breaking down tissues, followed by blowflies and beetles laying eggs which hatch into maggots that feed on the body. Later stages involve other insects like cheese flies, coffin flies, and beetles as the body dries out. Forensic entomology uses the insect evidence to estimate time of death based on what species are present and their lifecycle stages.
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Circulatory system
The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH balance. It includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The circulatory system is also essential for fighting diseases and transporting blood cells that help the immune system.
Vitamins & minerals
Lack of minerals like calcium, iron, chromium, and magnesium can lead to serious health conditions. Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency and causes iron-deficiency anemia with symptoms like fatigue, weakness, and decreased immune function. Calcium is important for bone health and deficiency can cause osteoporosis. Vitamin deficiencies can also cause diseases like scurvy with symptoms of bleeding gums and spots on the skin or rickets, a softening of the bones in children. Nutrition involves taking in nutrients from food for growth, tissue repair, and energy through absorption and assimilation.
Food tests
The document describes procedures for testing foods for the presence of starch, glucose, proteins, and oils/fats. For each test, it provides the steps to perform the test along with the expected color change results for a positive or negative indication of the substance being tested. The tests involve adding reagents like iodine, Benedict's solution, Biuret reagent, or water and observing any color changes that confirm or rule out the presence of starch, glucose, proteins, or oils/fats.
Food pyramid
The Food Pyramid outlines 6 food groups and recommends eating more servings from the groups at the bottom and fewer from those at the top. Grains form the base and should provide 50% of daily calories. Fruits and vegetables are next and provide vitamins and fiber, with 5-9 servings recommended daily. Dairy, meat and alternatives make up the third level and supply nutrients like calcium and protein, with 2-3 servings each day. Fats, oils and sweets at the top should be eaten sparingly and in moderation.
Yogurt
Yogurt is produced by adding a starter culture containing Lactobacillus bulgaricus bacteria to milk. During fermentation, the bacteria convert lactose into lactic acid, lowering the pH and causing the milk proteins to thicken. This partial pre-digestion and acidic environment makes yogurt easily digestible and able to replenish healthy bacteria in the intestines after antibiotic use. Yogurt can be made by boiling, cooling, and incubating milk with a starter culture for 10 hours to allow the bacteria to ferment the lactose into lactic acid.
Nutrition new
The document discusses the main components of nutrition - carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. It describes the different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Proteins are formed from amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Lipids include fats, oils, and phospholipids. The document also provides examples of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids and discusses hydrolysis and condensation reactions.
Diet
A balanced diet requires getting adequate macronutrients like carbohydrates, proteins and fats, as well as micronutrients including vitamins and mineral salts. Carbohydrates provide energy and are obtained from foods like grains, fruits and vegetables. Proteins from meat, fish, beans and dairy are needed for growth, repair and bodily functions. Fats supply energy and are found in plant oils and animal products. A balanced diet also includes fiber from plants and water, which transports nutrients and regulates bodily processes. Vitamins and minerals regulate functions and protect the body, with vitamins classified as water or fat soluble.
Root hair cells and water transport
Transport in plants occurs through xylem vessels. If a plant stem is placed in dye, the dye will be transported through the xylem into the leaves. Lignified xylem vessels provide structural support, especially in larger plants. Young plants wilt without water because their central cells lack support. Cambium is a layer of cells that divides to produce both xylem and phloem. Root hair cells have thin extensions that increase their surface area for water absorption from soil. Transpiration occurs on the underside of leaves and drives the movement of water through the plant.
Animal cell
The document describes the main organelles found in cells and their functions. The mitochondrion produces energy for the cell, the nucleus controls cell activities, and the Golgi apparatus processes and packages proteins. The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and transport, the cell membrane controls movement into and out of the cell, and free ribosomes also aid in protein synthesis.
Cells
Cells of various types were described, including pollen grains that are typically 100 micrometers in size, red blood cells that contain hemoglobin and help transport gases through their biconcave shape, and root hair cells that have thin extensions to increase the surface area for water absorption.
Plant cell
The document describes the functions of three organelles in a plant cell. The chloroplast harvests energy from sunlight to produce sugar. The vacuole stores water and other materials. The cell wall supports the plant cell.
Transport in plants
Plants have developed vascular systems to transport nutrients and water throughout their large bodies. The xylem transports water and minerals up from the roots through dead conductive cells, while the phloem transports organic nutrients down from the leaves through living cells. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves, and creates a transpirational pull that drives water absorption by roots and transport through xylem vessels up the stem using capillarity and osmosis.
Topic 6 infection, immunity and forensics revision
1. The document discusses microorganisms that cause disease, called pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and worms.
2. It provides details on the structure and life cycle of viruses and bacteria, and explains how diseases like HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis are caused and transmitted.
3. Prevention methods for diseases are discussed, such as vaccinations, antibiotics, and improving living standards.
Forensics
The document discusses several forensic clues that can indicate time of death:
1. The stages of decomposition and rigor mortis in the body provide clues. Rigor mortis starts 2-4 hours after death as muscle cells run out of ATP and lock rigid.
2. The type and development of insect larvae living in the body can also provide clues about time since death.
3. Body temperature decreases after death due to heat transfer to the surroundings, and factors like body fat, clothing, and surroundings affect the cooling rate, allowing time of death to be estimated by comparing to known cooling curves.
Death and decays
This document discusses the stages of decomposition that occur with a dead body over time, as well as factors that can affect the decay process. It begins with anaerobic bacteria breaking down cells, followed by blowflies and beetles laying eggs which hatch into maggots that feed on the tissues. Later stages involve other insects like cheese flies, coffin flies, and beetles as the body dries out. Forensic entomology uses the insect evidence to estimate time of death based on the lifecycle stages found.
Bacteria
The document discusses bacteria and antibiotics. It provides information about testing for HIV infection, how HIV affects T helper cells and health, how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics, comparing antibiotic effectiveness using paper discs, and why antibiotics do not work on viruses. Graphs are included showing T helper cell counts in an HIV-infected individual, antibiotic usage and bacterial resistance over time.
Immunity and virus
HIV infects and destroys CD4+ T cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers. The virus uses the CD4 receptor and CCR5 or CXCR4 coreceptors to enter T cells, then integrates its genetic material into the host cell DNA and uses the cell's machinery to replicate itself. Antiretroviral drugs target different stages of the HIV life cycle to suppress viral replication and stop the progression of HIV disease.
Forensics
The document discusses several forensic clues that can indicate time of death:
1. The stages of decomposition and rigor mortis in the body provide clues. Rigor mortis starts 2-4 hours after death as muscle cells run out of ATP and lock rigid.
2. The insects and larvae living in the dead tissue and their development stage also provide clues.
3. Body temperature decreases after death due to heat transfer to surroundings, and comparing the cooling curve to standard curves can estimate time of death, though factors like body fat, clothing, and surroundings affect cooling rate.
Death and decays
This document discusses the stages of decomposition that occur with a dead body over time, as well as factors that can affect the decay process. It begins with anaerobic bacteria breaking down tissues, followed by blowflies and beetles laying eggs which hatch into maggots that feed on the body. Later stages involve other insects like cheese flies, coffin flies, and beetles as the body dries out. Forensic entomology uses the insect evidence to estimate time of death based on what species are present and their lifecycle stages.
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Topic 6 infection, immunity and forensics revision
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