ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIT 1 { PART-1}

INTRODUCTION
TO
ANATOMICALTERMS
AND ORGANIZATIONOFTHE
HUMANBODY
.

INDEX
S.No. Content
1. Introduction to anatomical terms
2. Subdivision of anatomy and physiology
3. Major surface and body landmarks
4. Cell structure and cell division, and functions
5. Tissues, Glands, organization of human body
6. Body cavities, fluids and electrolytes
7. Cell cycle, Bone marking

INTRODUCTION
ANATOMY
Anatomy is the science which deals with the structure of human body. The term
anatomy is derived from a Greek word “anatome” meaning cutting up.
DIVISION OFANATOMY
Gross/Cadaveric/MacroscopicAnatomy
The study of the structure of the human body by cadaveric dissection (dead
bodies) with the naked eye. It can be studied by region (regional) such as the upper
and lower limbs, the thorax, abdomen, head and neck, and the brain, or by system
(systemic) such as the skeletal system, muscular system, nervous, respiratory,
digestive, reproductive, and endocrine systems.

SURFACE ANATOMY : It is the study of Projection
of internal body parts on the corresponding external
surface area of the body. This helps in clinical
correlation with normal and abnormal anatomy.
REGIONAL ANATOMY: It is the study of structure
and organization of a definitive part of the body. The
various parts or regions of the body studied are as
follows:
•Head and neck
•Thorax
•Abdomen
•Pelvis
•Back
•Extremities: upper and lower limbs

SYSTEMIC ANATOMY : It is the study of the body systems, e.g.
Digestive system, Cardiovascular system, nervous system, etc.

EMBRYOLOGY/DEVELOPMENTAL
ANATOMY: The study of growth and development
of human body from fertilization through birth.
Surface anatomy
Radiologic anatomy
Living anatomy
Genetic anatomy
Applied anatomy

CLINICALANATOMY : It emphasizes the
structure and function of a part of body or the
entire body in relation to the practice of
medicine and other health related professions.
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY: It is the study of
anatomy which provides correlation between
structure and function of various organs.
HISTOLOGY/MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY: The
study of human bodily structures by using a microscope.

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMICALTERMS
ANATOMICALPOSITION
The position in which a person is standing
straight with eyes looking forwards, upper
limbs by the sides, face and palms of the
hands directed forwards, both feet together.

PALNTER AND DORSAL
SURFACE
PRONE POSITION
SUPINE POSITION

LITHOTOMY
POSITION
ANATOMICAL PLANES

TERMS RELATED TO ANATOMICAL
PLANES
Median/Midsagittal Plane: Vertical plane passing
through the center of the body, splitting it into equal
right and left halves.
Sagittal/Paramedian Plane: Plane parallel to median
or mid sagittal plane situated to one or other side of the
median plane.
Coronal Plane: A vertical plane that divides the body
into anterior (front) and posterior (back) halves at a
right angle to the median or mid sagittal plane.

Horizontal/Transverse plane
Planes are at right angle to sagittal or
median plane which divides the body
into upper and lower parts.
Oblique Plane
Planes other than coronal, transverse,
and midsagittal are
referred to as oblique
planes.

TERMS RELATED TO BODY MOVEMENT
JOINT
A joint is a point or junction of the body where two
or more than two bones meet and are able to bend.
Some joints have no movement (sutures of the
skull), some have only slight movement (superior
tibiofibular joint), and some are freely movable
(shoulder joint).
FLEXION
It is the movement that reduces the angle between
two bones or body parts so that their ventral
surface comes close to each other. For example,
flexion at the elbow decreases the angle between
the ulna and humerus.

EXTENSION
Straightening, It is the movement that increases the angle between two
bones or body parts usually take place in posterior direction. For
example, extension at the elbow increases the angle between the ulna
and humerus.
FLEXION AND EXTENSION

ABDUCTION
It is movement of a limb away from the midline of the body, for
example spreading of fingers and toes is abduction.
ADDUCTION
It is the movement of the limb toward the midline of the body, for
example drawing together of fingers and toes is adduction.

ROTATION
Any movement of a part of the body around its long axis. Medial rotation is the
movement of the body part towards the midline where as lateral rotation is the
movement of the body part away from the midline.
CIRCUMDUCTION
Combination in sequence of the movements
of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction

PRONATION
Medial rotation of the forearm so that
the palm of the hand faces posteriorly
(Opposite to anatomical position).
SUPINATION
Lateral rotation of the forearm so that palm
of hand faces anteriorly
(Anatomical position).

PROTRACTION
It is the movement of the jaw in forward
direction to stick out the chin.
RETRACTION
It is the movement of the jaw in the
backward direction to pull the jaw.
INVERSION
It is the movement of the foot
towards the median plane so that sole
faces towards medial direction.
EVERSION
It is the movement of the foot away from the
median plane so that sole faces towards lateral direction.

DORSALFLEXION
The flexion of the ankle joint in which
the dorsum of foot bent towards
anterior surface of the leg.
PLANTER FLEXION
The extension of the ankle joint
in which the planter aspect of the foot
faces backwards.

Homeostasis definition in biology is the ability or
tendency of the body or a cell to seek and maintain a
condition of equilibrium – a stable internal
environment — as it deals with external changes.
It makes use of feedback controls and other regulatory
mechanisms or dynamic processes in order to maintain
a constant internal environment.
It can be construed as a skill of a living organism in its
effort to stay within the optimal range despite
fluctuating environmental conditions. Thus, in the
biological context, the word homeostasis entails
multifarious physiological control mechanisms in order
to sustain and stabilize the functional, normal status of
an organism.
Etymology: The term homeostasis comes from the
Ancient Greek ὅμοιος (hómoios, meaning “similar”),
from στημι (hístēmi, “standing still”) and stasis,
from στάσις (stásis, meaning “standing”). The concept
of homeostasis was first described in 1865 by Claude
Bernard, a French physiologist. However, the term was
coined later in 1962 by the American physiologist
Walter Bradford Cannon

CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL DIVISION
A microscopic anatomy is a visual, colorful
science. The light source for the early
microscopes was sunlight. In modern
microscopes, electric illumination is used as
the main light source.
During embryonic development, the cells
divide and multiply to form new cells, tissues,
and organs. In an adult organism, however, not
all cells retain the ability to further divide and
reproduce. As a result, different populations
of cells are recognized based on their ability or
inability to divide and reproduce.

Nerve cells in the nervous system and muscle cells (skeletal and
cardiac) continue to divide during embryonic development. Once these
cells establish the organs in postnatal life, however, their ability to
further divide ceases and they cannot be replaced if they are damaged or
destroyed.

INTRODUCTION
Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of the living matter
and is capable of carrying on the processes of the life independently.
The main function of these cells is to maintain a proper homeostasis in
the organism. Cell can be divided as prokaryotic and eukaryotic
kingdom.

CELL
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
ANIMALS
PLANTS
The cell is the fundamental unit of life. It is estimated that the
human body has 10 trillion (10,000,000,000,000,000,000) cells;
each one is independently alive but combine to make a single
person.

STRUCTURE OF CELL
Cell membrane
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
CELLMEMBRANE
Cell membrane is also known as plasma membrane is the outer covering
of the cell. The membrane isolates the individual cell and takes part in
the maintenance of the internal environment by active transport of ions
and nutrients.

NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the most easily
spotted, membrane bound
organelle and a
characteristic feature of a
eukaryotic cell. It houses
the cell’s genetic material
– DNA condensed in the
form of chromosomes SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATIONS OF VARIOUS
TYPES OF
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

CYTOPLASM
It is the gel like, clear colored solution made up of proteins, ions,
enzymes and organelles all surrounded by plasma membrane. Each cell
cytoplasm contains numerous organelles, each of which performs a
specialized metabolic function that is essential for maintaining cellular
homeostasis and cell life such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, lysosomes, ribosomes,
centrioles, centrosomes and peroxisomes.

CELL, ITS
CYTOPLASM
AND
ORGANELLES

MITOCHONDRIA (LEFT) AND CELLULAR
LOCATION (RIGHT)

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell and even carry
their own genetic information. This energy is used to make
new cell components or fuel processes like muscle contraction.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are fluid filled bags that contain a variety of
enzymes, which break down potentially harmful materials in
the cell. They provide a safe place to store these enzymes
without damaging the rest of the cell. Sometimes, when an
organelle is worn out, it starts to malfunction and so the cell
needs to remove it by digesting it in a lysosome; this is a
process called autophagy (self-eating). Although lysosomes
are often thought of as waste-bins they are more like recycling
plants, that dispose of waste and reuse other components.

Golgi complex
Golgi complex or golgi apparatus is a membranous cytoplasmic
organelle constituting of flattened stacks of various types of membranes.
Some are called cisternae and others are in the form of tubules and
vesicles. Perinuclear in location, these are located right next to
endoplasmic reticulum. The vesicles leaving ER enter the golgi complex
as cis-cisternae (cisternae nearest to ER) and leave at the trans-cisternae
(cisternae farthest of ER)

Centrosome
Centrosome is an area in the cytoplasm which is near the nucleus. It
houses a pair of centrioles which are important for cell division. The
centrioles are barrel-shaped organelles made up of microtubules. During
the mitosis, centrioles form the region from where the mitotic spindle
arises.

Membrane bound vesicles
Lipid bilayer bound small sacs involved in various functions of storage
and transportation within the cell is termed as membrane bound vesicle.
These originate either from the plasma membrane or the ER/golgi
complex. Mostly these contain enzymes, proteins, toxins, or other
molecules.

A cell division is a process in which the parent cell divides, eventually giving rise to new daughter
cells. It is an essential biological process in many organisms. It is the means used by multicellular
organisms to grow, replenish (repair), and reproduce. In unicellular organisms, cell division is equivalent
to reproduction. There are two forms of cell division: (1) direct cell division and (2) indirect cell
division.
•Direct cell division is one in which the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the cell divide directly into two
parts. This form of cell division is also referred to as amitosis.
•In contrast, indirect cell division involves complicated changes within the cell, e.g. formation of
chromosomes, before the parent cell divides and produces daughter cells. Mitosis is a cell division that
involves an indirect method of producing daughter cells.
Cell division is commonly used interchangeably with mitosis, a process comprised of karyokinesis
and cytokinesis resulting in two genetically identical cells. Nevertheless, cell division is not exclusive to
mitosis; it is also happening in meiosis, which, in comparison, is a process giving rise to cells with non-
identical genetic material. Thus, cell division is a biological process involved in the growth and
reproduction of various organisms. It is part of the organism’s cell cycle.

The Fundamentals of Cell Division
Cell division is a complex yet orchestrated series of events that culminates in the production of two daughter cells from a single
parent cell. These daughter cells possess identical genetic material, ensuring the accurate transmission of hereditary
information. The primary types of cell division are mitosis and meiosis, which cater to different biological functions and
organisms.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is essential
for growth, development, and repair in multicellular organisms, as well as reproduction in single-celled organisms.
The Stages of Mitosis
1.Prophase
2.Metaphase
3.Anaphase
4.Telophase
Meiosis
Meiosis is a specialized form of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg cells) in sexually reproducing organisms. It
consists of two consecutive cell divisions—meiosis I and meiosis II—resulting in four non-identical daughter cells, each
containing half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
The Stages of Meiosis
1.Prophase I
2.Metaphase I
3.Anaphase I
4.Telophase I
5.Prophase II
6.Metaphase II
7.Anaphase II

Characteristic Mitosis Meiosis
Purpose Growth, repair, asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Number of Divisions One Two
Daughter Cells Two Four
Chromosome Number Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
Genetic Composition Identical to parent Unique (non-identical to parent)
Table 1: Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

TISSUES
EPITHELIAL
TISSUE
MINIMAL INTERCELLULAR MATERIAL
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
ABUNDANT EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
MUSCLE TISSUE CONTRACTILE PROPERTIES
NERVOUS TISSUE
CONDUCT ELECTRICAL IMPULSE

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
The epithelial tissue, also known as epithelium, is made up of sheets of
cells that cover the external surfaces of the body and line the interior
cavities of organs, glands, and ducts. The epithelium is made up of
densely packed cells with little intercellular material. They are found on
the thin basement membrane that divides the epithelium from the
connective tissue beneath it.

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM
Simple epithelium
 Simple squamous
epithelium.
 Simple cuboidal
epithelium
 Simple columnar
 Epithelium
 Pseudostratified
columnar
 Epithelium
Stratified epithelium
 Stratified squamous
epithelium
 Keratinized
 Non-keratinized
 Stratified cuboidal
epithelium
 Stratified columnar
Epithelium
 Transitional epithelium

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
EPITHELIUM

STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Multiple cell layers are present. Basal cells range in shape from cuboidal
to columnar, and they produce cells that migrate to the surface and
become (flat) squamous. Squamous epithelium is divided into two
types: nonkeratinized and keratinized Epithelium.

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM

STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS NON KERATINIZED
EPITHELIUM

CARTILAGE
Cartilage is a form of connective tissue in which the cells and fibres are
embedded in a gel like matrix. It is a specialized connective tissue
characterized by elasticity and flexibility.
FEATURES OF CARTILAGE
Lacks blood supply (avascular), lymphatic and nerves.
The chondrocyte cells occur singly or in groups within spaces called
lacunae.
 Cartilage consists of ground substance, fibers and cells
(chondrocytes).

TYPEOFCARTILAGE
It is the most abundant type of
cartilage in human body. All long
bones are performed this cartilage.

ELASTIN CARTILAGE
Chondrocytes single not in groups,
large, numerous and closely
packed in lacunae covered
by perichondrium. The matrix consists
of elastic fibers and ground substance.
Elastic cartilage found in Auricle,
pinna of ear, external auditory
meatus, auditory tube, epiglottis,
corniculate, cuneiform and apices of
arytenoid cartilage.

FIBROCARTILAGE
Chondrocytes are fewer and in row
between the layers of collagen with
in lacunae. Fibro cartilage has many
collagen fibers embedded in a small
amount of matrix. Fibrocartilage found
in Articular discs pubic symphysis,
inter vertebral discs (annulus fibrosus),
temporomandibular joint and knee.
Collagen fibers oriented in the direction
of stress.

DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF CARTILAGE IN
BODY

GLANDS
Body contains variety of glands. These glands develop from epithelial
cells that extend from the surface into underlying connective tissue. The
material secreted by the gland is usually a liquid (enzyme, hormone,
mucus or fat). They are classified as
1. Exocrine glands
2. Endocrine glands

EXOCRINE GLANDS:
Exocrine glands are connected
to the surface epithelium by
excretory ducts, into which
their secretory products pass to
the external surface. Exocrine
glands are either unicellular or
multicellular.

1. CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
According to the Branching of the Duct
Simple glands
Compound glands
2. ACCORDING TO NATURE OF THEIR SECRETIONS
Merocine
Apocrine
Holocrine

COMPOUND ACINAR AND
TUBULOACINAR EXOCRINE GLAND
COILEDTUBULAR EXOCRINE
GLAND

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine glands do not have
excretory ducts. The
endocrine glands have lost
their connection to the surface
epithelium and their secretory
products are delivered directly
in to the blood.

MAJOR SURFACEAND BONY LANDMARKS
IN EACHBODY REGION, ORGANIZATION OF
HUMAN BODY
The study of the external characteristics of the body is known as surface
anatomy (also known as superficial anatomy or visible anatomy). It is
concerned with anatomical aspects that can be observed without
dissection. Along with endoscopic and radiological anatomy, it is a
branch of gross anatomy. The science of surface anatomy is a
descriptive one.

TECHNIQUES TO EXAMINE SURFACE
ANATOMY

SURFACE LANDMARKS
Anterior Axillary Fold
Posterior Axillary Fold
Coracoid Process
Deltoid
Sternal Angle (Angle of Louis)
Breast
Nipple
Apex Beat of Heart
Axillary Artery
Brachial Artery
Brachial Vein
Cephalic Vein

SURFACEMARKING OF MALE PECTORAL REGION

SURFACEMARKING OF FEMALEPECTORALREGION

SURFACELAND MARK THORAX HEARTSTERNOCOSTAL SURFACE

AXILLARY ARTERY BRACHIAL ARTERY

BASILIC VEIN AND CEPHALIC VEIN

INJECTION SITES
Deltoid
(commonly
used for adult
vaccinations)
Dorsogluteal
Ventrogluteal
Rectus
femoris
Vastus
lateralis

INTRAMUSCULAR
INJECTION IN
DELTOIDREGION

INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTIONS IN GLUTEAL REGION

Intramuscular Injections in Gluteus Medius and Gluteus
Maximus

INJECTION SITESOF IM INJECTION

COMMON BONE MARKINGS
ANGLES
Sharp bony angulations that may serve as bony or soft tissue
attachments but often are used for precise anatomical description.
Examples include the superior, inferior, and acromial angles of the
scapula and the superior, inferior, lateral angles of the occiput.
BODY
This usually refers to the largest, most prominent segment of bone.
Examples include the diaphysis or shaft of long bones like the femur
and humerus.

CONDYLE
Refers to a large prominence, which often provides structural support to
the overlying hyaline cartilage. Examples include the knee joint (hinge
joint), formed by the femoral lateral and medial condyles, and the tibial
lateral and medial condyles.
CREST
A raised or prominent part of the edge of a bone. Crests are often the
sites where connective tissue attaches muscle to bone. The iliac crest is
found on the ilium.

DIAPHYSIS
Refers to the main part of the shaft of a long bone. Long bones,
including the femur, humerus, and tibia, all have a shaft.
FACET
A smooth, flat surface that forms a joint with another flat bone or
another facet, together creating a gliding joint. Examples can be seen in
the facet joints of the vertebrae, which allow for flexion and extension
of the spine.

TROCHANTER
A large prominence on the side of the bone. Some of the largest muscle
groups and most dense connective tissues attach to the trochanter. The
most notable examples are the greater and lesser trochanters of the
femur.
TUBEROSITY
A moderate prominence where muscles and connective tissues attach.
Its function is similar to that of a trochanter. Examples include the tibial
tuberosity, deltoid tuberosity, and ischial tuberosity.
TUBERCLE
A small, rounded prominence where connective tissues attach.
Examples include the greater and lesser tubercle of the humerus.

APPLICATION AND IMPLICATION IN
NURSING
Wounds of the skin heel quickly
Cartilages do not break whereas bones do
Deltoid is a preferred site for intramuscular injection in the upper limb
Mark of pregnancy
Healthy females feel less cold compared to healthy males
Mark of pregnancy

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY UNIT 1 { PART-1}

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