3. Introduction
You are about to begin the study of one of nature's most wondrous structures the
human body. Anatomy (ah-NAT-o-me) and Physiology (fiz-ee-OL-o-jee) are
branches of biology that are concerned with the form and functions of the body
Anatomy: is the study of body structure,Physiology: deals with body function, that is,
how the body parts work to support life As you learn about the complex
interdependence of Structure and function in the human body, you will become, in a
very real sense, the subject of your own studyANATOMYAnatomy is often defined as
the study of the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts. The word
anatomy is derived from two Greek words (ana "up" and temos or tomos, "cutting")
Students of anatomy still learn about the structure of the human body by literally
cutting it apart. This process, called dissection, remains a principal technique used to
isolate and study the structural components or parts of the human bodyofis defined
as the study of life. Both anatomy and physiology are subdivisions
4. of this very broad area of inquiry. Just as biology can be subdivided into specific areas
for study, so can anatomy and physiology. For example, the term gross anatomy is
used to describe the study of body parts visible to the naked eye. Before the
discovery of the microscope, anatomists had to study human structure using only the
eye during dissection. These early anatomists could make only a gross or whole,
examination. With the use of modern microscopes, many anatomists now specialize in
microscopic anatomy, including the study of cells, called cytology (sye-TOL-o-jee), and
tissues, called Histology (his-TOL-o-jee). Other branches of anatomy include the study
of human growth and development (developmental anatomy) or the study of
diseased body structures (pathological anatomy).
5. Definition
Definition of anatomyIt is a branch of medical science which deals with the study of
structure of plant and animal.
Definition of human anatomyIt is branch of medical science which deals with the
study of structure of different organs and body parts of human.The BRANCHES
OF ANATOMY:
1. Gross anatomy / MacroscopicIt is branch of anatomy which deals with the study
of structure of human body parts by naked eye. (mean that without any microscope
or lenses.)
6. 1. HistologyIt is a branch of anatomy which deals with the study of structure tissues or study of
microscopic part or cell
2. Embryology:It is the branch of anatomy which deals with the study of embryo.it provides
details of changes occurring during development. Hence, it helps in understanding congenital
deformities and defects.
7. Regional anatomy : branch of anatomy dealing with regions of the body especially with
reference to diagnosis and treatment
8. Systemic anatomy, the second branch of human anatomy, subdivides the body into discrete
organ systems that work together towards a common goal or function.
9. Cross-section: In anatomy, a transverse cut through a structure or tissue. The opposite is
longitudinal section.
Applied anatomy examines structure-function relationships in the context of related subjects such
as diagnostic imaging, pathology and other aspects of medicine.
Cytology (also known as cytopathology) involves examining cells from bodily tissues or fluids to
determine a diagnosis.
14. TERMINOLOGY OF ANATOMY
◾ Ventral/AnteriorThe part of body which is present in front or near to abdomen
◾ Dorsal/Posterior The part of body which present near to back side is called posterior.
◾ Superior dorsal orAnterior(Ventral)The part of body which is present towards upper side is called superior.
◾ InferiorThe part of body which is present towards lower side is called inferior
◾ Medial LineThe line wi.ich divides the body into two equal, right and left parts is called medial line.
◾ MedialThe parts of the body that are present near to the medial line is called medial.
◾ LateralThe parts of body which are presentAways from the medial line.
◾ Deep any part which is away from the surface is called deep, e.g., bones are deep to skin.
◾ SuperficialAny part which is near from the surface is called superficial, e.g. skin is superficial to bones.
◾ Proximal is the part which is present nearer to the reference point.
◾ DistalIt is the part which is present away to the reference point.
15. COMBINED TERMINOLOGY
CombinedTerminology InfromedialIt is the part of body that present near to the
medial line and towards the lower side.IpsilateralTwo parts of body that present at
the same side of body.For example, it could be said that the left arm and left leg are
ipsilateral to one another with respect to the mid sagittal plane.Contra lateralTwo
body organs which are present opposite to each other is called contra lateral,
e.g.The left arm and right leg are contralateral to one another with respect to the
mid sagittal plane
16. BONES MOVEMENT
◾ A bone's hard outside shell surrounds a
spongy center. Bones provide structure and
form for your body. They work with muscles,
tendons, ligaments and other connective
tissues to help you move
◾ Flexion: A bending movement that decreases the
angle between two parts. Eg. Bending the elbow,
or clenching your hand into a fist.
◾ Extension: The opposite of flexion, a
straightening movement that increases the angle
between two parts.
18. ◾ Medial rotation involves
bringing the anatomical
structure closer to the
median plane,
while lateral
rotation involves moving
it further away.
19. ◾ The antagonistic movements of
inversionand eversion take place
relativeto the median place and are
specific to the foot. In eversion, the
plantarside of the foot is moved away
from the median plane so that it is
turned laterally.In inversion,the
plantarside is moved towards the
median plane, resulting in a medial
turn.
◾
23. Digestive system
The digestive system in human being is composed of a long muscular
tube called GIT or alimentary canal and assessory organ.
Git run through ventral body cavity it extend from mouth anus.
Consists:
1. Oral cavity 6.rectum
2. Pharynx
3. Eshophagus 7 .liver
4. Stomach small intestine 8.gall bladder
5. Large intestine 9 .pancreas
24.
25. GIT start with the upper side, it opens out through the mouth and down
through the anus, passes through the back of the pharynx, passes through the
neck, passes through the chest, enters the abdomen, and enters the muscular
organ called the stomach. After the stomach, the food passes through a
complicated tube called the intestine, the first about 20 feet long is called the
small intestine, and the rest is called the small intestine. It is called large
intestine because it is wide in diameter. Digestive fluids are poured into the
stomach from the digestive tract while the food is passing through its various
parts. In the digestive system, the liver and pancreas are the two main
enzymes that produce gastric juice.If possible, all the food is separated from
the food and the waste is allowed to remain there, which is finally excreted
through the anus.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31. Anatomy of Heart
• :The heart is a pear-shaped muscular organ that plays the most important role in the
circulatory system. It is a hollow organ. It is located slightly to the left in the middle of
the chest, its thickness is equal to a human ligament. And the weight is about 300
grams. It is closed in a single layer called pericardium. Between the two layers of
pericardium there is a fluid called pericardial fluid, which during the heartbeat gives
the heart pericardium and the surrounding area. Avoids friction with It brings blood in
six big holes up to the heart.Four pulmonary veins bring blood from the lungs. A
superior vein (Superior Vena Cava) from the upper part of the body and an inferior
vena cava. Vena Cava carries blood from the lower part of the body to the heart
respectively. Pulmonary Artery carries blood to the lungs. Aorta carries blood to all
parts of the body. The branches return to the heartTwo channels (evil or not) carry
blood and go out from the heart.(Coronary) arteries are called. pumps blood to all the
body's organs to deliver their nutrients, and send blood to the lungs for cleaning
32. Chamber of heart
The heart has four chambers: two atria and two
ventricles
1. Right atrium
2. Left artium
3. Right ventricle
4. Left ventrical
the right antrum, two large holes from
above and below (Superior and Inferior
Vena Caval) enter with dirty blood from the
body. The Peer-mez Dina Cava brings
deoxygenated blood from the organs above
the diaphragm such as the head and arms
etc. From the right atrium, this blood flows
into the right ventricle and from hereIt goes
to the lungs through the pulmonary
arteries.
35. ◾ Thearm isthe part of the upperlimb between
the shoulderand elbow(or cubitus). Theboneof
the armis humerus, which articulates with the
scapula at the shoulder joint and upperends
of radius andulna at the elbow joint.
◾ Theforearm is thepart of the upperlimb
between the elbowandthe wrist. Thebonesof
the forearm are radius and ulna.These bones
articulate with humerusat the elbow joint and
with each other forming radio-ulnar joints.
36. The lower limb is divided into three regions.
These are the thigh, located between the
hip and knee joints; the leg, located
between the knee and ankle joints; and
distal to the ankle, the foot. There are 30
bones in each lower limb.
37. The vertebrae (back bones) of the spine include the cervical spine (C1-C7), thoracic spine (T1-T12), lumbar spine (L1-L5), sacral spine (S1-
S5), and the tailbone. Each vertebra is separated by a disc. The vertebrae surround and protect the spinal cord.
38.
39. Cell
cell is defined as the smallest unit of an organism with a nuclEus
A cell has three main parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm. The cell
membrane surrounds the cell and controls the substances that go into and out of the cell.
There are 2 type of cell
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
Cell is the basic Structural and functional unit of living organisms. In other words,
cells make up living things and carry out activities that keep a living thing alive.
40.
41. .prokaryotic cell has no
nucleus; every eukaryotic
cell has a nucleus.
Prokaryotic cells have no
mitochondria; nearly every
eukaryotic cell has
mitochondria. Prokaryotic
cells have no organelles
enclosed in plasma
membranes; every
eukaryotic cell has a
nucleus and organelles,
each enclosed in plasma
membranes.
42.
43.
44.
45. Intracellular and extracellular compartment
• The intracellular fluid is the fluid contained
within cells. The extracellular fluid—the fluid
outside the cells—is divided into that found
within the blood and that found outside the
blood.
• The intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment is
the system that includes all fluid enclosed
in cells by their plasma
membranes. Extracellular fluid (ECF)
surrounds all cells in the body.
46.
47. TISSUE
• There are 4 basic types of tissue: connective tissue,
epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue.
Connective tissue supports other tissues and binds
them together (bone, blood, and lymph tissues).
Epithelial tissue provides a covering (skin, the linings
of the various passages inside the body). Muscle
tissue includes striated (also called voluntary) muscles
that move the skeleton, and smooth muscle, such as
the muscles that surround the stomach. Nerve tissue
is made up of nerve cells (neurons) and is used to
carry "messages" to and from various parts of the
body.
51. BONES
• Bone consists of four types of cells: osteoblasts, osteoclasts,
osteocytes, and osteoprogenitor (or osteogenic) cells. Each cell type
has a unique function and is found in different locations in bones.
52. Extracellular matrix
• Extracellular matrix, which is made up of an organic matrix (30%)
containing proteoglycans (but less than cartilage),
glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, osteonectin (anchors bone
mineral to collagen) and osteocalcin (calcium binding protein). There
are collagen fibres (mostly type I (90%), with some type V). Only 25%
of bone is water. Almost 70% of bone is made up of bone mineral
called hydroxyapatite.
53.
54. Bones
Bone is the one-third connective tissue, forming the main supporting framework of the body. The in-organic
Calcium salts make it hard and rigid. •Osteology: The scientific study of bones is known as Osteology
• There are 6 basic types which are mentioned below: 1. Long Bones. 2. Short Bones. 3. Flat Bones. 4.
Irregular Bones. 5. Pneumatic Bones. 6. Sesamoid Bones.
• 1. Long Bones: These bones typically have an elongated shaft and two expanded ends one on either side of
the shaft. The shaft is known as diaphysis and the ends are called epiphyses. Examples: Humerus, femur etc.
Fig. Femur, Long Bone.
• . 2. Short Bones: These bones are short in posture and can be of any shape. Examples: The carpal and tarsal
bones. Fig. Carpal Bones, Short Bones. Fig. Tarsal Bones, Short Bones.
. 3. Flat Bones: These bones are flat in appearance. Examples: Scapula, Ribs, Sternum etc. Fig. Scapula, Flat
Bone. Fig. Sternum & ribs, Flat bones.
. 4. Irregular Bones: These bones are completely irregular in shape. Examples: vertebrae, hip bone and bones in
the base of skull. Fig. Hip bone, Irregular bone. Fig. 1st & 2nd Cervical of vertebra, Irregular bone.
• 5. Pneumatic Bones: Pneumatic bones can also be categorized under the irregular bones.The characteristic
difference is the presenceof large air spaces in these bones which make them light in weight and thus they
form the major portion of skull Examples: Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxila etc. Fig. Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxila ,
Pnematic Bones.
. 6.Sesamoid Bones: These are in the form of nodules embedded in tendons and joint capsules. Examples:
Patella, Pisiform, Fabella etc. Fig. Pisiform, Sesamoid Bone. Fig. Patella, Sesamoid Bone.
55.
56. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
LYMPH (lymph = clear fluid) Derived from tissue fluid
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Protects body against foreign material .Assists in
circulation of body fluids between cells and bloodstream . Transports dietary
fats
Lymphatic system consist of- Lymph - Network of vessels - Lymph nodes and
nodules - Tonsils - Spleen - Thymus gland - Bone marrow
Lymph - a fluid that contains white blood cells that defend against germs
Lymph vessels - vessels that carry lymph throughout your body. They are
different from blood vessels.
Lymph nodes - glands found throughout the lymph vessels. Along with your
spleen, these nodes are where white blood cells fight infection.
57. What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
• The lymphatic system has 3 primary functions:
• 1. Transports proteins and fluids, lost by capillary seepage, back to the bloodstream.
• 2. Participates in the body’s immune response.
• 3. Is the pathway for the absorption of fats from the small intestine into the bloodstream.
• What is the function of lymph nodes?
• Lymph nodes are filters, slowing down and cleaning the lymph before returning it to the blood
• Lymph nodes trap and sometimes become swollen with bacteria that has invaded the body AND the white
blood cells that fight that bacteria.
58. Lymph nodes trap and sometimes become swollen with bacteria that has
invaded the body AND the white blood cells that fight that bacteria.
59. ?
Lymph nodes are filters, slowing down and
cleaning the lymph before returning it to the blood.
The dark
lumps on the
membrane are
lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes and ducts under the arm.
